Gonadectomy reveals sex differences in circadian rhythms and suprachiasmatic nucleus androgen receptors in mice.

In mammals, it is well established that circadian rhythms in physiology and behavior, including the rhythmic secretion of hormones, are regulated by a brain clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. While SCN regulation of gonadal hormone secretion has been amply studied, the mechanisms whereby steroid hormones affect circadian functions are less well known. This is surprising considering substantial evidence that sex hormones affect many aspects of circadian responses, and that there are significant sex differences in rhythmicity. Our previous finding that "core" and "shell" regions of the SCN differ in their expression of clock genes prompted us to examine the possibility that steroid receptors are localized to a specific compartment of the brain clock, with the discovery that the androgen receptor (AR) is concentrated in the SCN core in male mice. In the present study, we compare AR expression in female and male mice using Western blots and immunochemistry. Both of these methods indicate that ARs are more highly expressed in males than in females; gonadectomy eliminates and androgen treatment restores these sex differences. At the behavioral level, gonadectomy produces a dramatic loss of the evening activity onset bout in males, but has no such effect in females. Treatment with testosterone, or with the non-aromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone, restores male locomotor activity and eliminates sex differences in the behavioral response. The results indicate that androgenic hormones regulate circadian responses, and suggest an SCN site of action.

Differential effect of lithium on the circadian oscillator in young and old hamsters.

Lithium is one of the most commonly used drugs in the prophylaxis and treatment of bipolar disorder. It is also known to lengthen circadian period in several organisms. Previously, we reported that there was the association between lengthening circadian period by lithium and GSK-3 protein and its enzyme activity in the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). In this study, we show that lithium affects the circadian oscillator in young and old hamster SCN, in an age-dependent manner. We found that basal levels of phosphorylated GSK-3 (pGSK-3) protein expression in old hamsters are much lower than that in young hamsters. Furthermore, in the old hamsters, lithium did not affect the period of the locomotor activity rhythm or pGSK-3 expression, while changing period and pGSK-3 in the younger animals. These results indicate that the content of pGSK-3 in the SCN has an important role in age-dependent effects of lithium on the circadian oscillator.

Role of calcium in the gating of isoproterenol-induced arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase gene expression in the mouse pineal gland.

Melatonin and its autonomic regulation serve important physiological functions. We recently demonstrated that stimulation of beta-adrenergic receptors only increases nighttime arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (Aa-Nat, the rate-limiting enzyme in melatonin synthesis) mRNA levels in mouse pineal gland in vitro, which suggests that pineal clocks may gate Aa-Nat gene expression. In the present study, our data reveal that cAMP analog increased Aa-Nat at any time of day but only in the presence of ionomycin. Using Fura-2AM in ratiometric calcium measurements, we show that isoproterenol stimulation increased intracellular free calcium levels at night, contrary to previous reports. Further, intra- or extracellular calcium depletion suppressed the isoproterenol-induced calcium responses as well as Aa-Nat gene expression. These results suggest calcium may be a critical factor in isoproterenol-induced Aa-Nat gene expression, which may be limited in the daytime. We also found that basal intracellular calcium levels were lower during the night and responses to isoproterenol and KCl depolarization were more robust. In addition, pineals of Cryptochrome mutant mice exhibited no significant difference between day and nighttime basal calcium or isoproterenol response. Together, these results suggest that basal calcium levels in the pineal may be controlled by the endogenous pineal clock, which may influence calcium dynamics, cellular homeostasis and sensitivity to external stimulation. Although the mechanism underlying Aa-Nat gene expression has been well studied, the role of calcium as a link between the pineal clock and Aa-Nat gene expression has been underestimated in rodent pineals.

Regulation of cAMP-induced arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase, Period1, and MKP-1 gene expression by mitogen-activated protein kinases in the rat pineal gland.

In rodent pineal glands, sympathetic innervation, which leads to norepinephrine release, is a key process in the circadian regulation of physiology and certain gene expressions. It has been shown that gene expression of the rate-limiting enzyme in the melatonin synthesis arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (Aa-Nat), circadian clock gene Period1, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphtase-1 (MKP-1), is controlled mainly by a norepinephrine-beta-adrenergic receptor-cAMP signaling cascade in the rat pineal gland. To further dissect the signaling cascades that regulate those gene expressions, we examined whether MAPKs are involved in cAMP-induced gene expression. Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses showed that one of the three MAPKs, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), was expressed in the pineal, and was phosphorylated by cAMP analogue stimulation with a peak 20 min after start of the stimulation, in vitro. A specific JNK inhibitor SP600125 (Anthra[1,9-cd]pyrazol-6(2H)-one1,9-pyrazoloanthrone), but not its negative control (N1-Methyl-1,9-pyrazoloanthrone), significantly reduced cAMP-stimulated Aa-Nat, Period1, and MKP-1 mRNA levels. Although another MAPK, p38(MAPK), has also been shown to be activated by cAMP stimulation, a p38(MAPK) inhibitor, SB203580 (4-(4-Fluorophenyl)-2-(4-methylsulfinylphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)1H-imidazole, HCl), showed no effect on cAMP-induced Aa-Nat and Period1 mRNA levels; whereas SB203580, but not its negative analogue SB202474 (4-Ethyl-2(p-methoxyphenyl)-5-(4'-pyridyl)-IH-imidazole, DiHCl), significantly reduced cAMP-induced MKP-1 mRNA levels. Taken together, our data suggest that cAMP-induced Aa-Nat and Period1 are likely to be mediated by activation of JNK, whereas MKP-1 may be mediated by both p38(MAPK) and JNK activations.

The role of Clock in the plasticity of circadian entrainment.

The mammalian circadian clock lying in suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is synchronized to about 24 h by the environmental light-dark cycle (LD). The circadian clock exhibits limits of entrainment above and below 24 h, beyond which it will not entrain. Little is known about the mechanisms regulating the limits of entrainment. In this study, we show that wild-type mice entrain to only an LD 24 h cycle, whereas Clock mutant mice can entrain to an LD 24, 28, and 32 h except for LD 20 h and LD 36 h cycle. Under an LD 28 h cycle, Clock mutant mice showed a clear rhythm in Per2 mRNA expression in the SCN and behavior. Light response was also increased. This is the first report to show that the Clock mutation makes it possible to adapt the circadian oscillator to a long period cycle and indicates that the clock gene may have an important role for the limits of entrainment of the SCN to LD cycle.

Effect of lithium on the circadian rhythms of locomotor activity and glycogen synthase kinase-3 protein expression in the mouse suprachiasmatic nuclei.

A circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) regulates the period of physiological and behavioural rhythms to approximately 24 h. Lithium can lengthen the period of circadian rhythms in most organisms although little is known about the underlying mechanism. In the present study, we examined Drosophila shaggy ortholog glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) protein expression in the SCN after lithium treatment. When locomotor activity was assessed, we found an association between the effect of lithium and the period of circadian oscillation as well as the level of GSK-3 protein expression. The decreased expression of GSK-3 and increased expression of phosphorylated GSK-3 (pGSK-3) resulted in an antiphasic circadian rhythm between the two in the SCN of lithium-treated mice housed under both light-dark and constant dark conditions. The enzyme activity of GSK-3 in the SCN was low when the level of pGSK-3 protein was high, as examined by immunoblotting analysis. Thus, GSK-3 enzyme activity has a correlation with the expression of GSK-3 protein in the SCN. Although both GSK-3 and pGSK-3 proteins are also expressed in the arcuate nucleus, lithium did not affect their expression. Based on the association that we found between lengthened circadian period and GSK-3 protein and GSK-3 activity in the SCN, we suggest that GSK-3 plays a role in regulating the period of the mammalian circadian pacemaker.