Changes in food habits amongst Norwegian adolescents in 2016 and 2019 according to gender and socioeconomic status.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring dietary habits is important in order to identify risk groups and as a basis for targeted public health initiatives. OBJECTIVE: To study trends in consumption of selected foods and beverages from 2016 to 2019 amongst Norwegian adolescents according to gender and parental education. DESIGN: Repeated cross-sectional study amongst 25,996 adolescents, aged 14-17 years old. Consumption of selected food and beverages was measured by an online food frequency questionnaire and general linear models were applied to estimate changes in dietary habits. RESULTS: Between 2016 and 2019, we observed a reduced frequency of consumption of vegetables (from 4.7 to 4.4 times/week), fruit and berries (from 4.4 to 4.2 times/week), whole-grain bread (from 5.1 to 4.2 times/week), and fish (from 2.3 to 1.6 times/week). During this time period, we also observed a reduced frequency of consumption of salty snacks (from 2.1 to 1.9 times/week), sweets (from 2.3 to 2.0 times/week), sugar-sweetened beverages (from 2.8 to 2.6 times/week), and artificially sweetened beverages (from 2.2 to 1.5 times/week). In girls, there was a decrease in the reported frequency of consumption of fruit and berries (-4%, vs. no change in boys). The decrease in consumption frequency of whole-grain bread was larger in girls than in boys (-19% vs. -14%). Further, a 17% decrease in consumption of sweets was observed amongst adolescents with no or only one parent having college/university education compared to a 13% decrease in adolescents whose both parents had college/university education. CONCLUSION: Our results showed a decrease in frequency of consumption of selected healthy and unhealthy food and beverages amongst adolescents between 2016 and 2019. The gender gap in consumption of fruit and berries and whole-grain bread seemed to decrease during this time period, and the socio-economic gap in consumption of sweets seemed to disappear.

Predominance of dfrG as determinant of trimethoprim resistance in imported Staphylococcus aureus.

To investigate the global occurrence of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance and the genetic mechanisms of trimethoprim resistance, we analysed Staphylococcus aureus from travel-associated skin and soft-tissue infections treated at 13 travel clinics in Europe. Thirty-eight per cent (75/196) were trimethoprim-resistant and 21% (41/196) were resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Among methicillin-resistant S. aureus, these proportions were 30% (7/23) and 17% (4/23), respectively. DfrG explained 92% (69/75) of all trimethoprim resistance in S. aureus. Travel to South Asia was associated with the highest risk of acquiring trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-resistant S. aureus. We conclude that globally dfrG is the predominant determinant of trimethoprim resistance in human S. aureus infection.

Skin and soft tissue infections in intercontinental travellers and the import of multi-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to Europe.

Staphylococcus aureus is emerging globally. Treatment of infections is complicated by increasing antibiotic resistance. We collected clinical data and swabs of returnees with skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) at 13 travel-clinics in Europe (www.staphtrav.eu). Sixty-two percent (196/318) SSTI patients had S. aureus-positive lesions, of which almost two-thirds (122/196) were Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) positive. PVL was associated with disease severity, including hospitalization for SSTI (OR 5.2, 95% CI 1.5-18.2). In returnees with SSTI, longer travel and more intense population contact were risk factors for nasal colonization with PVL-positive S. aureus. Imported S. aureus frequently proved resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (21%), erythromycin (21%), tetracycline (20%), ciprofloxacin (13%), methicillin (12%) and clindamycin (8%). Place of exposure was significantly (p < 0.05) associated with predominant resistance phenotypes and spa genotypes: Latin America (methicillin; t008/CC24/304), Africa (tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; t084/CC84, t314/singleton, t355/CC355), South Asia (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin; t021/CC21/318), South-East Asia (clindamycin; t159/CC272). USA300-like isolates accounted for 30% of all methicillin-resistant S. aureus imported to Europe and were predominantly (71%) acquired in Latin America. Multi-resistance to non-ß-lactams were present in 24% of imports and associated with travel to South Asia (ORcrude 5.3, 95% CI 2.4-11.8), even after adjusting for confounding by genotype (ORadjusted 3.8, 95% 1.5-9.5). Choosing randomly from compounds recommended for the empiric treatment of severe S. aureus SSTI, 15% of cases would have received ineffective antimicrobial therapy. These findings call for the development of regionally stratified guidance on the antibiotic management of severe imported S. aureus disease and put the infected and colonized traveller at the centre of interventions against the global spread of multi-resistant S. aureus.

Lactoferricin treatment decreases the rate of cell proliferation of a human colon cancer cell line.

Food components modify the risk of cancer at a large number of sites but the mechanism of action is unknown. In the present investigation, we studied the effect of the peptide lactoferricin derived from bovine milk lactoferrin on human colon cancer CaCo-2 cells. The cells were either untreated or treated with 2.0, 0.2, or 0.02 microM lactoferricin. Cell cycle kinetics were investigated with a bromodeoxyuridine DNA flow cytometric method. The results show that lactoferricin treatment slightly but significantly prolonged the S phase of the cell cycle. Lactoferricin treatment lowered the level of cyclin E1, a protein involved in the regulation of genes required for G(1)/S transition and consequently for efficient S phase progression. The slight prolongation of the S phase resulted in a reduction of cell proliferation, which became more apparent after a long treatment time.

The effects of prenatal exposure to hypoxia on the behavior of rats during their life span.

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of moderate prenatal damage on adaptability during the juvenile, adult, and senile phases. Pregnant rats were exposed to a 12% normobaric hypoxia from day 1 to 17 postconception. Pregnancy was normal in both the treated animals and the controls. Erythrocytes, hemoglobin, and hematocrit did not increase in the treated pregnant animals. During the first 3 weeks, the F1 generation showed developmental deviations in physiological characteristics. Throughout subsequent ontogeny, motor performance, cognitive ability, and adaptability to physical stress were determined with a test battery of varying demands. Some of the differences (e.g., locomotor activity, learning ability) between juvenile untreated and treated rats disappeared during the adult phase. Motor and coordinative abilities, however, remained partially impaired in the old rats, especially under high demands. This study, and previous findings with alcohol (37), indicate that prenatal exposure to a noxa may result in a highly differentiated brain injury pattern. Depending on the different functions, damage may intensify age-dependent adaptive disorders or provoke impairment without influencing the course of development.

Small and large field grating acuity versus recognition acuity in different groups of amblyopic patients.

Grating acuity was tested in 74 subjects with different amblyopia and five patients with pathological morphological findings, reducing visual acuity. Recognition acuity was tested with Landolt C single symbol and close inter-space 2.6 min. of arc. Grating acuity was tested with the Teller Acuity Cards with large (12.5 cm × 12.5 cm) and small (6.25 cm × 6.25 cm) test fields. Reduction of field size did not cause any significant difference. Patients with strabismic or strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia did not show a close correlation of recognition acuity with grating acuity. Stimulus deprivation amblyopia showed a good correlation between grating acuity (large and small field) and Landolt single optotype acuity. In children at risk for amblyopia, a difference in favour of large field gratings was found for both eyes (risk and non-risk eye) in the lower visual acuity group (identical with the lower age group). Better grating acuity for large fields seems to reflect an early stage of the visual development rather than that it is indicative for amblyopia.

The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on the behavior of rats during their life span.

Ontogenesis is closely related to the ability to adapt to endogenous and exogenous stimuli. However, this precondition for viability does not remain stable; it changes in correlation to the phases of life. In this long-term study with rats, the extent to which moderate prenatal damage influences the adaptability in the juvenile, adult and senile phases was examined. For this purpose rat fetuses were exposed to alcohol (6 g/kg bw/day) by treating the pregnant rats via drinking water from gestation days 7 to 17. In the juvenile phase (0-3 months), no substantial differences in comparison to controls were recorded. Exceptions were a delayed development in the negative geotaxis (posture reflex) and a transiently higher exploratory activity in the open field test. In the adult phase (> 3-27 months), reduced performance was observed in basic functions such as body temperature regulation. Additionally, diminished performance was seen in response to high demands in motor-coordination (rotorod). During the senile phase (> 27 months), impairment of nearly all tested functions occurred earlier and was more pronounced.

Effects of age and drugs on food and fluid intake.

In young adults rats (5-month-old) d-amphetamine (2 mg/kg/d), administered on a long-term basis via drinking water, caused a moderate reduction in the intake of nutriments, which in part normalized within three weeks. Self-administration of a daily dose of 20 mg per kg diazepam over a period of 26 days led neither to hypodipsia nor to anorexia. Pentylenetetrazol (70 mg/kg/d) primarily produced a hypodipsia. The three drugs did not influence body weight. In 27-month-old rats d-amphetamine and pentylenetetrazol had the same qualitative effects. Intake of nutriments and the development of body weight were influenced more strongly than in young rats. Diazepam also had a marked effect in old animals. Nootropics (piracetam, pyrithinol, hydergin, centrophenoxin, aniracetam) had no effects on the parameters observed. When the agents were given in combination in both age groups the nootropic piracetam (230 mg/kg/d) weakened the effects induced by d-amphetamine, pentylenetetrazol or diazepam alone. The benzodiazepine, however, enhanced the loss of body weight and fluid intake in old rats caused by the stimulant or analeptic, whereas food intake remained unaffected. The results support the hypothesis that an organism's adaptivity to external and internal stimuli is reduced in later life. The behavior of young and old rats in the open field was not affected by any drug medication.

Learning abilities of rats in multiple T-mazes of two degrees of complexity under the influence of d-amphetamine.

The effect of d-amphetamine on the learning capacity of male Wistar rats was investigated in multiple T-mazes in two experiments of increasing or decreasing degree of difficulty. Running speed, distance covered and the number of errors were scored to indicate proficiency and success of learning. These parameters, as well as the distribution of errors (goal-directed orientation), correction of errors (situational orientation) and latency at the decision points (discrimination time) were considered to represent cognitive components. The results demonstrated an experiment effect in that the rats showed more difficulty in learning, as exhibited by a slower running speed and more errors, in the maze with successively increasing demands than in the one with decreasing demands. Oral self-administered d-amphetamine in a dosage of 3-4 mg/kg/day or 7-8 mg/kg/day significantly increased the running speed in a dose-dependent manner. By contrast, success of learning and goal-directed orientation decreased. Situational orientation was, however, dose-dependently improved, at least in the experiment with the increasing demand.

Prevalence and clinical importance of Entamoeba histolytica in two high-risk groups: travelers returning from the tropics and male homosexuals.

This study was undertaken to learn the prevalence of amebiasis and to assess the clinical importance of Entamoeba histolytica in two high-risk groups: 2700 travelers returning from the tropics and 320 male homosexuals. Some 16.3% of the homosexual men and 4.0% of the travelers had E. histolytica infections. Only five travelers showed a pathogenic zymodeme of E. histolytica, which correlated closely with invasive amebiasis with positive amebic serology and clinical symptoms with diarrhea. The homosexual group had neither a pathogenic isoenzyme pattern nor positive amebic serology. Currently, travelers to the tropics have a risk of 0.3% (1:340) of acquiring invasive amebiasis; 92.5% of all E. histolytica infections in travelers remain asymptomatic and are confirmed by serology and zymodeme status. No homosexual presented with invasive amebiasis.

P-hydroxy-norephedrine as a possible mediator causing the reduction of oral intake of D-amphetamine in rats.

In rats D-amphetamine is predominantly metabolized by hydroxylation to p-hydroxy-norephedrine (p-HNE); in guinea pigs, however, by deamination to benzoic acid. After 2-3 days on dosages of 1 mg/kg per day and more rats begin to reduce their oral intake of the stimulant whereas guinea pigs do not. In the present study we examined the hypothesis that the formation of p-HNE in the CNS is partially responsible for this aversion. To determine the elimination of D-amphetamine and the increase in p-HNE, groups of male Wistar rats were given various doses (0.5-5 mg/kg per day) of D-amphetamine in their drinking water intragastrically and intravenously. D-Amphetamine in the brain was determined by radioimmunoassay, p-HNE by high performance liquid chromatography followed by electrochemical detection. In contrast to the concentration of D-amphetamine, the p-HNE-content is independent of the route of administration; after oral treatment it showed a linear increase. The results reveal that p-HNE induces the aversion to the stimulant and that the ratio of D-amphetamine to its metabolite determines the onset of this aversion. No p-HNE was found in the brain of guinea pigs. Guinea pigs do not show any aversion to drinking D-amphetamine solutions, even in high dosages.

The influence of brain catecholamines on 'drug taking behaviour' relative to oral self-administration of d-amphetamine by rats.

Oral administration of 5 mg/kg of d-amphetamine to adult Wistar rats caused brain NE to decrease to approx. 80% of the control level during 4-24 h after acute treatment and slowly further to 65% after 24 days of self-administration via drinking water. The norepinephrine (NE)-reducing effect was first recognized at 1 mg/kg and appeared to peak at 5 mg/kg of d-amphetamine. Brain dopamine (DA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) were only shortly affected. Neither iprindole nor desipramine altered the effect of amphetamine on brain NE. DA was decreased by both inhibitors depending on the duration of pre-treatment. Iproniazid and alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine antagonized and potentiated respectively the amphetamine effect on NE- and DA-concentration after 4 days of simultaneous treatment. In the free choice experiment (water vs. 0.005% d-amphetamine solution) rats developed an aversion to amphetamine. The number of rats taking the drug and the consumption by rats still drinking it declined gradually from 100% and approx. 3 mg/kg/day to 50% and approx. 1.5 mg/kg/day, respectively, during 18 days. The time course of the developing aversive reaction to oral amphetamine ran approximately parallel to that of NE-depletion. Iprindole and desipramine intensified, iproniazid and propranolol weakened, while alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine and haloperidol hardly influenced the aversive effect of amphetamine. It is concluded that the development of aversive behaviour in response to oral d-amphetamine is mediated not only through the depleting effect of amphetamine on NE stores but also by its direct stimulation at beta-adrenergic receptors in the CNS.

[The importance of Entamoeba histolytica in persons returning from the tropics]. / Bedeutung von Entamoeba histolytica bei Tropenrückkehrern.

Stools from 1000 travellers returning from the tropics were examined for intestinal parasites. The most frequently isolated intestinal pathogens were Giardia lamblia (5%) and E. histolytica (3.6%). For 21 out of 36 E. histolytica isolates iso-enzyme differentiation by starch-gel electrophoresis was possible, yielding a pathogenic pattern in four. This finding correlated closely with clinical symptoms and positive serology, while E. histolytica with non-pathogenic zymodeme should not be considered as a cause of diarrhoea.

Amebic liver abscess in a European patient: zymodeme classification of Entamoeba histolytica.

This is a case report of a 36-year-old patient who developed an amebic liver abscess after a stay in the Sudan. He was first misdiagnosed as having pneumonia of the right lower lobe. Following establishment of the correct diagnosis, the patient recovered fully after metronidazole treatment. The fecal culture in Robinson's medium yielded extensive growth of Entamoeba histolytica. Electrophoretic characterization proved it to be a zymodeme XIX, which is one of the zymodemes associated with pathogenicity in the host. This first report of a zymodeme classification of E. histolytica in Germany should initiate further epidemiological studies.

Isoenzyme patterns of Entamoeba histolytica isolated from homosexual men.

This is a preliminary report on isoenzyme patterns of Entamoeba histolytica which were examined by starch gel electrophoresis. By this means the amoebae isolated from 17 asymptomatic male homosexuals were characterized into zymodemes. No amoebic strain isolated corresponded to a pathogenic zymodeme.

Influence of normobaric hypoxia on learning capacity of different aged rats.

In this study it was tested to what extent subchronic normobaric hypoxia (10% oxygen by volume) influences the learning performance of rats of different ages (4, 20, 30 months). The animals were presented with two successive conditioning patterns (FR 10/DRL). After acquisition of the FR 10 under normoxic conditions in a Skinner box the rats needed to reestablish the learned behavior under normoxia and further under hypoxia. Following this, the rats had to learn the DRL in a test chamber under the conditions of reduced oxygen. Their performance was compared with that of control animals which had to accomplish the tasks under normoxia. No age differences were observed under normoxia in learning the FR 10. However, the reestablishment of FR 10 under hypoxic conditions was less well performed by old rats than younger ones. The young rats (4 months) had a high efficiency level on the DRL-schedule under normoxia which was not impaired by hypoxia. The old rats (30 months) had considerably lower performance level under normoxia which was not further reduced in individuals by hypoxia. The performance of the middle group (20 months) was, under normoxia, at an intermediate level, while oxygen reduction led to a pronounced reduction in efficiency.

Effects of chronic hypoxia on behavioral and physiological parameters.

Aging is a process accompanied by progressive susceptibility to disturbances and impairments in adaptability. The influence of age on the capacity to adapt to chronic normobaric hypoxia (10%) was studied in 4, 20 and 27 month old rats. Adaptation was measured for four days by food and fluid intake and spontaneous activity. In addition the values of the pO2, pCO2, pH-value, Na+ concentration and hematocrit were determined. The results show an initial marked decline for the three modalities of behavior in all age groups. While age-dependent differences were exhibited, for the adaptation course in nourishment and spontaneous activity, the values of the blood gases and hematocrit did not reveal age-related changes. Thus, physiological parameters and behavior are not consistent regarding the effects of age on adaptation capacity.

Motor activity of different-aged Cercopithecidae: silvered-leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus Esch.), lion-tailed monkey (Macaca silenus L.), moor macaque (Macaca maura Cuv.) as observed in the Zoological Garden, Berlin (West).

The activity of different-aged monkeys belonging to three species of Cercopithecidae was quantitatively analyzed in a 1 1/2-year study. The species, silvered-leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus Esch.), lion-tailed monkey (Macaca silenus L.) and moor macaque (Macaca maura Cuv.) were observed in the Zoological Garden, Berlin (West). The data of a combined cross-sectional analysis across all three species indicate that the course of age-related changes in the frequency of movement can be depicted as graduated and differentiated. These results are discussed in terms of a reverse development pattern in old age compared to that of early youth.

Changes in motor activity with age and the effects of pharmacologic treatment.

In a previous study the decline in the motor performance of old rats was determined to be differential. In this study, whether, and to what extent, this decline can be pharmacologically influenced was tested. Therefore, 27 month old rats were orally treated with several nootropics and d-amphetamine for six weeks. Food and water intake were determined. The rats were tested on spontaneous activity and on the tilting plane, climbing, and rotarod tests. The results showed that the nootropics only effected pronounced improvements on complex motor tasks such as on the rotarod test. In contrast, amphetamine treatment caused rather negative effects. This could be observed in the motor performance as well as in the food and water intake. Young rats did not have this sort of reaction to amphetamine. The nootropics were all well tolerated. Additionally, it was obvious that the untreated rats also showed a slight improvement in motor performance due to repeated practice.