EFFECT OF ENERGY DRINKS ON SELECTED FINE MOTOR TASKS.

This study assessed the effect of energy shots on selected fine motor tasks. The participants were college-age male (n=19; M age=20.5 yr., SD=0.7) and female (n=21; M age=21.1 yr., SD=0.7) volunteers who were assessed on hand steadiness, choice reaction time, rotary pursuit, and simple reaction time. The energy shots group scored significantly poorer on the hand steadiness tests and significantly better on choice reaction time and simple reaction time tests. The enhanced reaction time and disruption in hand steadiness afforded by energy shots would not be apparent in many gross motor activities, but it is possible that reaction time improvement could be beneficial in sports that require quick, reflexive movements. However, the potential adverse psychological and physiological effects warrant discretionary use of such products.

Comparison of allometric scaling methods for normalizing strength, power, and speeed in American football players.

AIM: Assessments of physical abilities are consistently and systematically done in American football in order to determine progress and effectiveness of conditioning programs. Typically, such assessment are recorded as absolute values without regard to the influence of body mass (BM) on the performance variables. METHOD: Test results were collected on NCAA football players (mean + SD: age = 20.1+1.3, mass=107.38+20.30 kg, height=186.76+8.6 cm). Players were categorized into seven weight groups. Data by weight groups were compared by absolute and by allometrically scaled values for 1-RM squat (N.=566), vertical jump (N.=581), and 40 yd (36.58 m) sprint (N.=560) over a seven-year period. RESULTS: Results of ANOVAs yielded significant (P<0.05) and a near linear pattern of absolute strength by BM. Allometrically scaled 1-RM squat resulted in normalized data void of significant wt group differences while allometrically scaled power and speed did not normalize data to the point that the data could be compared regardless of BM. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that it may be possible to determine if an athlete falls within an a normal range of the established standards derived from allometric scaling for the 1-RM squat. However, caution should be taken when applying allometric scaling for power and speed. It is suggested that additional research look into the possibility of adjusting the exponent (performance variable x BMx) to better reflect a normalized condition for more accurate comparisons of athletes.

A comparison of allometric scaling methods for normalizing strength, power, and speeed in American football players.

AIM: Assessments of physical abilities are consistently and systematically done in American football in order to determine progress and effectiveness of conditioning programs. Typically, such assessment are recorded as absolute values without regard to the influence of body mass (BM) on the performance variables. METHOD: Test results were collected on NCAA football players (mean + SD: age = 20.1+1.3, mass=107.38+20.30 kg, height=186.76+8.6 cm). Players were categorized into seven weight groups. Data by weight groups were compared by absolute and by allometrically scaled values for 1-RM squat (N.=566), vertical jump (N.=581), and 40 yd (36.58 m) sprint (N.=560) over a seven-year period. RESULTS: Results of ANOVAs yielded significant (P<0.05) and a near linear pattern of absolute strength by BM. Allometrically scaled 1-RM squat resulted in normalized data void of significant wt group differences while allometrically scaled power and speed did not normalize data to the point that the data could be compared regardless of BM. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that it may be possible to determine if an athlete falls within an a normal range of the established standards derived from allometric scaling for the 1-RM squat. However, caution should be taken when applying allometric scaling for power and speed. It is suggested that additional research look into the possibility of adjusting the exponent (performance variable x BMx) to better reflect a normalized condition for more accurate comparisons of athletes.

Comparison of stability and weight shift among golfers grouped by skill level.

This study compared balance, sway, and weight shift among golfers with different skill levels. Participants (N=52) were right-handed, male golfers between the ages of 18 and 55 and were divided into 3 groups based on their official handicap (Group 1= 0-9, Group 2= 10-16, Group 3 = 17+). Postural sway velocity was recorded unilaterally for each leg and bilaterally. Weight shift as assessed by limits of stability was measured as movement velocity and directional control. During testing, participants stood on a virtual center square as illustrated by a monitor placed directly in front of them. On command participants initiated movement about eight target squares located in a circle around the center square and attempted to move quickly and accurately to the targets. Means from the three forward, three backward, three left, and three right targets were analyzed by group. While significant condition means existed for each of the analyzed means, no significant group differences were found for bilateral or unilateral postural sway, and no significant group differences were found for movement velocity or directional control. In conclusion, as measured in the current study, balance and weight shift are not significantly different among golfers with different skill.

An assessment of injuries in college cheerleading: distribution, frequency, and associated factors.

BACKGROUND: Over 50% of all catastrophic injuries in women's sport occur in cheerleading, but unlike other sports, no central tracking system exists. OBJECTIVE: To obtain, describe, and compare cheerleading injury data and associated factors. METHODS: Cheerleaders from randomly chosen division IA universities completed surveys designed to acquire basic information and data on injury frequency, type, and location, practice frequency and duration, and related factors. RESULTS: Participants (n = 440) were aged 18-23 (mean (SD) 20.2 (1.8)) with 6.6 (2.2) years of experience. Most respondents (78%) reported having suffered one or more career injury. Of those injured, 39.7% reported an injury within the preceding year. Respondents sustained 1.0 (0.91) injuries during the preceding year with 1.8 (2.2) days lost. Ankles (44.9%) and wrist/hand (19.3%) were the most commonly injured. Practice frequency and duration were 205 (61.5) days a year (range 80-300) and 2.8 (0.7) hours (range 1.5-4) respectively. Training included stretching (99.7%), endurance activities (87.1%), and weight training (92.9%). CONCLUSION: Guidelines and policy governing cheerleading should be developed according to mandatory injury reporting similar to that currently used in other sports.

Comparison of perceived comfort differences between standard and experimental load carriage systems.

The current popularity of backpack-type load carriage systems (LCS) by students has precipitated a prevalence of postural abnormalities and pain. This study compared subjective perceptual comfort in standard and vertically loaded LCSs. Sixteen females ages 18-23 years rated their personal LCSs for perceived shoulder, neck, and lower back comfort and for overall comfort, each day for two weeks using 100 mm visual analogue scales (VAS). Each scale contained polar extremities of 'very comfortable' to 'very uncomfortable' and a vertical mark placed on the 100 mm line by the participants indicated their perception of comfort. Following two weeks, participants were given LCSs that distributed the weight vertically and were asked to rate the system in the same way for an additional two-week period. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in shoulder (p=0.015), neck (p=0.005), and lower back (p=0.036) comfort and overall comfort (p=0.001) between the participants' personal LCSs and the experimental LCS. In conclusion, vertical load placement may redistribute the load in a manner that reduces symptoms of selected anatomical discomfort.

Nutrition practices and knowledge of college varsity athletes: a follow-up.

The purpose of this study was to determine nutrition knowledge and behavior of division IA college athletes and to compare such knowledge and behavior with data from a similar survey conducted in 1992. Surveys with distribution instructions and statements of confidentiality were sent randomly to strength and conditioning coordinators (SCCs) at 16 universities. Survey results indicated that women (60.6%) received more nutrition information than men (49.5). SCCs and athletic trainers were the primary nutrition sources for men, whereas university classes and nutritionists were primary for women. Much information was obtained from arguable sources such as magazines, family members, and coaches. Only 3, 11.7, and 29.5% correctly identified recommended percents of total calorie intake for protein, fat, and carbohydrates, respectively. Thirty-seven percent correctly identified the role of vitamins and 54.4% for protein. Creatine and vitamin/mineral supplements were the most common for men and women, respectively. Despite previous recommendations regarding nutrition education of high-level athletes, diminutive changes have occurred in the past 6 years.

Comparison of Body Mass Index by self-reported versus measured height and weight.

This study compared differences between self-reported and measured height and weight and subsequent Body Mass Index. College students (N=62) were asked to complete a health questionnaire as accurately as possible. Height and weight were self-reported without the knowledge that these variables would be subsequently measured. Self-reported and measured heights, weights, and calculated Body Mass Indexes were statistically compared. Analysis indicated that measured height was significantly less than self-reported height for men, but weight was not significantly different. Calculated Body Mass Index for men was not significantly different, however, self-reported Body Mass Index resulted in placement in the Normal range (18.5 to 24.9) category and measured Body Mass Index placement in the Overweight category (25.0 to 29.9). Women's self-reported and measured heights were not significantly different; however, self-reported weight was significantly less than measured. Further, significantly different Body Mass Indexes were found for women. It was concluded that self-reported height and weight might be viewed with caution in Body Mass Index assessment for convenience samples of college-age subjects.

Relationship between frequency of aerobic activity and illness-related absenteeism in a large employee sample.

Frequency of weekly aerobic activity was compared with annual illness-related absenteeism in 79,070 adult US adult workers. Weekly exercise, days per week of aerobic activity (> or = 20 minutes), and absenteeism consisting of days per year and grouped as 1 to 3, 4 to 6, and 7+ days were recorded. After controlling for confounding variables, chi-squared values and odds ratios were calculated. A significant (chi 2 = 280.37) relationship was found between absenteeism and exercise. Differences (P < 0.05) in absenteeism were found between no exercise and all frequencies of weekly exercise. One day of exercise was associated with lower absenteeism when compared with no exercise, and 2 days of exercise was more favorable than one. No differences were found between any other combinations (2 to 3, 2 to 4+, 3 to 4+ days) of exercise frequency and absenteeism. These data suggest a significant relationship between exercise frequency and illness-related absenteeism.

Load carriage energy expenditure with and without hiking poles during inclined walking.

The purpose of this study was to compare load carriage energy expenditure with and without using hiking poles. Twenty male volunteers aged 20-48yr (Mean=29.8yr) completed two randomly ordered submaximal treadmill trials with poles (E) and without poles (C). Poles and load (15 kg backpack) were fitted for each subject according to the manufacturers' suggestions. Heart rates (HR), minute ventilation (V(E)), oxygen consumption (O2), caloric expenditure (Kcal), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at the end of each minute. Two trials separated by one week consisted of a constant treadmill speed of 1.5 mph and 1 min at 10% grade, 2 min at 15% grade, 2 min at 20% grade, and 10 min. at 25% grade. Mean HR (E = 144.8 +/- 24.4 b x min(-1); C = 144.0 +/- 25.7 b x min(-1)) and mean V(E) (E=51.4 +/- 15.8L x min(-1); C=50.8 +/- 17.0L x min(-1)), VO2 (E = 26.9 +/- 6.1 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1); C = 27.4 +/- 6.6 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)), and Kcal (E = 10.6 +/- 2.9 Kcal x min(-1); C = 10.8 +/- 3.1 Kcal x min(-1)) were not significantly different between the two conditions. RPE (E = 13.28 +/- 1.2; C = 14.56 +/- 1.2) was significantly lower (P < 0.05) with hiking poles. Analysis of paired time points yielded no significant differences in HR, VO2, V(E), and Kcal, however, RPE means were significantly lower for 5 of the last 7 trial minutes with the use of poles. These results suggest that during load carriage on moderate grade, the weight and use of hiking poles does not increase energy expenditure but may provide reduced perceptions of physical exertion.

A field test comparison of hiking stick use on heartrate and rating of perceived exertion.

The purpose of this study was to compare heartrate carrying a load and rating of perceived exertion with and without hiking sticks while ascending and descending a slope. 11 novice, moderately fit volunteers, ages 18 to 21 years (M = 19.3 yr.) completed two alternate 50-meter, uphill and downhill hikes on a 40 degrees slope during randomly ordered trials with and without fitted hiking sticks and backpacks (15 kg). Paired t test comparisons for 4 trials indicated that mean heartrate was significantly lower only following the first ascent by those using hiking sticks than those without sticks. Rating of perceived exertion also was significantly lower (p < .05) for those using hiking sticks. Perhaps heartrate may be lower at the onset of climbing using hiking sticks, but as the duration the hike is extended, heartrates become comparable, presumably due to the transfer of energy utilization from the legs to the upper body.

Perception of physical variables during four phases of the menstrual cycle.

Comparisons of perceptions during four menstrual phases were collected with 6 regularly menstruating athletes who responded to a semantic differentiation scale containing descriptive polar terms. Analysis indicated a significantly lower mean score on perceived strength and speed during the progestational phase and a lower mean for power during menstrual and progestational phases.

Health care costs of worksite health promotion participants and non-participants.

Total and lifestyle-related medical care costs for employees of a major corporation participating in a worksite health promotion (WHP) program over a three-year period were compared with the costs for non-participants in a cross-sectional study. The study population consisted of 8,334 active employees based in the Cincinnati headquarters of The Procter & Gamble Company. Adjusting for age and gender, participants (n = 3,993) had significantly lower health care costs (29% lower total and 36% lower lifestyle-related costs) when compared with non-participants (n = 4,341) in the third year of the program. Similarly, in the third year of the program, participants had significantly lower inpatient costs, fewer hospital admissions, and fewer hospital days of care when compared with non-participants. No significant differences in costs were found between participants and non-participants during the first two years of the WHP program. Conclusions drawn from this study are that long-term participation in a WHP that includes high-risk screening and intensive one-on-one counseling results in lower total and lifestyle-related health care costs, as well as lower utilization of hospital services.

Comparison of hiking stick use on lateral stability while balancing with and without a load.

To compare hiking stick use on lateral stability while balancing with or without a load (15-kg internal frame backpack) under conditions of no stick, 1 stick, and 2 sticks for six trials 15 volunteers ages 19 to 23 years (M = 21.7 yr.) were tested six separate times on a stability platform. During randomly ordered, 1-min. trials, the length of time (sec.) the subject maintained balance (+/-10 degrees of horizontal) and the number of deviations beyond 10 degrees were recorded simultaneously. Backpack and hiking sticks were individually adjusted for each subject. A 2 x 3 repeated factor analysis of variance indicated that subjects balanced significantly longer both with and without a load while using 2 hiking sticks than 1 or 0 sticks. Significantly fewer deviations beyond 10 degrees were found when subjects were without a load and using 1 or 2 sticks versus when they used none, and no significant difference in the number of deviations were found between 1 and 2 hiking sticks. When subjects were equipped with a load, significantly improved balance was found only between the 2 sticks and no sticks. Balance was significantly enhanced by using hiking sticks, and two sticks were more effective than one while carrying a load. An increase in maintenance of static balance may reduce the possibility of falling and injury while standing on loose alpine terrain.

Acoustic analysis of voice in individuals with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and perceptually normal vocal quality.

Currently, early phonatory changes in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are not well understood. The aim of this study was to compare acoustic parameters of voice in ALS subjects who demonstrated perceptually normal vocal quality on sustained phonation with a control group. We hypothesized that objective analysis of voice would reveal significant differences on specific acoustic parameters of voice compared to the control group. Results revealed statistically significant differences between the two groups on measures related to frequency range and phonatory stability. The findings suggest that early bulbar signs affecting the laryngeal system may be present in patients with ALS before the occurrence of perceptually aberrant vocal characteristics.

The effect of T'ai Chi Chuan training on balance, kinesthetic sense, and strength.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of T' ai Chi Chuan training on lateral stability, kinesthetic sense, and strength of voluntary knee extension. Subjects consisted of 24 naive volunteers (12 men and 12 women) between the ages of 20 and 45 years. Pre- and 12-week posttests included lateral body stability, kinesthetic sense in the glenohumeral joint for 30 degrees, 45 degrees, and 60 degrees, and strength of knee extension. After pretest data collection, 12 subjects performed T'ai Chi Chuan three times per week for 12 weeks, learning 108 forms of T'ai Chi Chuan. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was used to estimate significance of group differences on all of the dependent variables. Significant group differences were found in lateral body stability, kinesthetic sense at 60 degrees, and strength of the dominant knee extensor. No significant differences between the T'ai Chi and the control group were found for kinesthetic sense at 30 degrees and 45 degrees rotation of the glenohumeral joint. Film analysis indicated that the two lesser angles were not as common in the T'ai Chi training as the greater angle (60 degrees) and thus may be less practiced. It appears that T'ai Chi Chuan presents a low-stress method to enhance stability, selected kinesthetic sense, and strength of knee extension.

The relationship between perceived stress and self-reported illness-related absenteeism.

PURPOSE: To investigate the association between perceived stress and illness-related work absenteeism. DESIGN: A standardized health profile questionnaire developed by Johnson & Johnson Advanced Behavioral Technologies, Inc., was used to collect demographic and personal health data between June 1988 and January 1993. Chi-square, odds ratio, and stepwise regression tests were used to analyze perceived stress and self-reported absenteeism data. SETTING: Worksite health promotion programs in 250 U.S. companies. SUBJECTS: Subjects consisted of 79,070 employees. MEASURES: Stress data, grouped as low, moderate, and high, were correlated with absenteeism data grouped by annual days missed (None, 1 to 2, 3 to 4, and 5+). RESULTS: Significant relationships were found (p < or = .05) between high stress and absenteeism for both genders. Female workers reported higher stress levels and absenteeism than men. Those with high stress were 2.22 more likely to be absent 5+ days per year than those with low stress. Work, finances, and family were the highest stress sources. Greatest absenteeism predictors were health, legal, social, and financial stress. CONCLUSIONS: These data primarily represented self-selected white workers and may not apply to all employees. However, if high stress relates to absenteeism, these data may provide valuable information for program design in stress management.

Relationships between leisure time physical activity and perceived stress.

This study investigated the relationship between physical activity during leisure time and perceived stress among working adults (N = 32,229). Data were gathered on physical activity, perceived stress, current health status, age, gender, life changes, ongoing problems, number of techniques used for stress reduction, and number of personality traits related to Type A behavior. To control for confounding variables Mantel-Haenszel summary risk estimates were used. Employees who expended more than 3.0 Kcal/kg(-1) . day(-1) in physical activity during leisure time were 0.78 and 0.62 times less likely to have moderate and high perceived stress, respectively. Working adults participating in moderate amounts of these activities have about half the rate of perceived stress as nonparticipants.