Initial Development and Validation of the Brief Internalized Heterosexist Racism Scale for Gay and Bisexual Black Men: A Measure of Internalized Heterosexist Racism.

We introduce internalized heterosexist racism (IHR), or the internalization of damaging stereotypes, harmful beliefs, and negative attitudes about being a sexual minority person of color. We also present the initial development and validation of the Brief Internalized Heterosexist Racism Scale for gay and bisexual Black men (IHR-GBBM), a unidimensional, 10-item measure of IHR. Exploratory factor analyses on an internet-obtained sample of gay and bisexual Black men (N = 312; Mean age = 30.36 years) show that the IHR-GBBM had evidence of good internal consistency, and good convergent, discriminant, concurrent, and incremental validity. The IHR-GBBM was positively correlated with internalized racism, internalized heterosexism, and discrimination (racist, heterosexist). IHR was also negatively correlated with race stigma consciousness, weakly positively correlated with sexual identity stigma consciousness, but not correlated with either race identity, sexual identity, or social desirability. Hierarchical regressions showed that the IHR-GBBM explained an additional variance of 2.8% and 3.1% in anxiety symptoms and substance use coping, respectively, after accounting for (1) sociodemographics, (2) internalized racism and internalized heterosexism, and (3) an interaction of internalized racism and internalized heterosexism. Older participants and those who were "out" about their sexual identity reported lower IHR. Those who did not know/want to report their HIV status reported greater IHR. Results revealed no sexual identity, sexual position, relationship status, income, education, or employment status differences in IHR. We hope the development of the IHR-GBBM spurs future research on predictors and consequences of IHR. We discuss limitations and implications for the future study of internalized heterosexist racism.

Attitudes toward COVID-19 restrictions and COVID-19-related stress and fear among college students across three waves.

Background and Aims: The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the mental health of college students, leading to increased psychological distress. This study explored potenital predictors to better understand the factors that influence and mitigate student COVID-19 stress in the evolving landscape of residential colleges. Specifically, we investigated the roles of COVID-19 fear, loneliness, and attitudes toward COVID-19 restrictions. Methods: Employing a longitudinal online survey design, we collected data over the fall 2020 semester from 122 first-year college students enrolled in a small mid-west liberal arts college. Participants completed the same survey three times: Wave 1 in August, Wave 2 in October, and Wave 3 in November. Results: Fear of COVID-19 (Time 1) was a significant predictor of increased COVID-19 related stress at both Time 2 and Time 3. Interestingly, loneliness (Time 1) moderated the effect of fear of COVID-19 (Time 1) on attitudes toward COVID-19 restrictions at Time 2. Moreover, students' negative attitudes toward COVID-19 restrictions and feelings of loneliness increased over the course of the semester. Conclusions: These findings suggest that college students' wellbeing in the context of COVID-19 stress is influenced by a complex interplay of perceptions of COVID-19 (stress, fear, attitudes) and feelings of social isolation (loneliness). Further research in this area is crucial to provide targeted support and interventions to promote students' mental health.

College transition Fall 2020 and 2021: Understanding the relationship of COVID-19 experiences and psychosocial correlates with anxiety and depression.

Rates of mental health symptoms, particularly anxiety and depression, have increased significantly in college students in the past decade along with utilization of mental health resources. The COVID-19 pandemic created an additional source of stressors to an already challenging landscape of college transition. COVID-19 has been associated with an increase of anxiety among college students, particularly first year students, entering college in Fall 2020. The shifts in policy (e.g., federal, state, and college) accruing medical data, and vaccine availability between Fall 2020 and Fall 2021 provide an opportunity to examine the role of COVID-19 experiences in the transition to college for these two first-year student cohorts. This study examined two cohorts of first-year students, Fall 2020 and 2021, to better understand the relationship between COVID-19 experiences, psychosocial correlates, and mental health symptoms. Results suggest that for students in our Fall 2020 cohort COVID-19 experiences played a distinct role in the prediction of mental health symptoms while in Fall 2021 COVID-19 experiences did not uniquely contribute to prediction of mental health symptoms. These findings have implications for mental health interventions for first-year students transitioning to college.

Growth mindset of anxiety and avoidant coping as mediators of anxiety across the first year of college: A longitudinal survey of college students in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the mediating role of growth mindset of anxiety beliefs and avoidant coping behaviors in predicting changes in anxiety across the first year of college, drawing from a sample of first year students managing the transition to college under the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions (Fall 2020-Fall 2021). Methods: Self-report online surveys (n=122) were administered to first year students at four timepoints: the beginning (August 2020; T1), and follow up surveys at two months (October 2020; T2), three months (November 2020; T3) and twelve months (August 2021; T4). Results: Path analysis indicate that growth mindset of anxiety and avoidant coping partially mediate the relationship between baseline anxiety and later anxiety outcomes. Discussion: These findings have implications for mental health interventions designed to alter health attributions and mindset.

Internalized Homophobia and Suicide Ideation Among Sexual Minority Adults: The Serial Mediation of Core Self-Evaluations and Depression.

Internalized homophobia (IH) is the endorsement of negative attitudes and stereotypes about sexual minority individuals among those who are LGBQ + . However, although IH is associated with suicide ideation, the underlying mechanisms of this association are relatively understudied. To address this limitation, this research investigates Core Self-Evaluation (CSE; one's fundamental evaluations about themselves, their own abilities, and their own control) and depression as underlying mechanisms associating IH with suicide ideation. CSE comprises four traits: self-esteem, locus of control, emotional stability, and generalized self-efficacy. An online survey was completed by 404 sexual minority adults (Meanage = 27.42 years, %Female = 51.50, %Male = 30.40, %Trans Female = 3.2, %Trans Male = 5.4). Participants were recruited via Prolific, an online crowdsourcing platform. Four serial mediation analyses examined the direct and indirect effects of IH on suicide ideation via each CSE trait and depression symptoms. Results showed support for the CSE-depression mediated pathway. Self-esteem, emotional stability, and general self-efficacy (but not locus of control) mediated the relationship between IH and suicide ideation via depression symptoms. Across three serial mediations, greater IH was associated with lower (1) self-esteem, (2) emotional stability, and (3) self-efficacy; lower self-esteem, emotional stability, and self-efficacy were associated with greater reported depression symptoms, which were then associated with greater suicide ideation. This research has implications for understanding the underlying mechanisms that associate IH with poor mental health among sexual minority adults. Studying the social and psychological mechanisms can help develop therapeutic interventions that target suicide ideation and promote positive self-evaluations among sexual minority individuals.

Dehumanization, attitudes toward seeking professional psychological care, and mental health among African American women.

OBJECTIVE: Self-infrahumanization or perceiving oneself as lacking the experience of uniquely human emotions, and endorsement of Strong Black Woman (SBW) schema, or self-superhumanization, are two forms of dehumanization. Among African American women, SBW schema endorsement is associated with greater negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help (ATSPPH) and poorer mental health. Self-infrahumanization is associated with fewer adaptive stress responses and poorer well-being. This research examines the relationship between self-infrahumanization and self-superhumanization on ATSPPH and mental health among African American women. We hypothesized that self-infrahumanization and self-superhumanization will be associated with greater negative ATSPPH and greater mental health symptomatology. We also hypothesized that ATSPPH will mediate the interactive effect of self-infrahumanization and SBW schema endorsement on mental health symptomatology. METHOD: Four hundred and forty-nine self-identified African American women (Mage = 37.96; SDage = 15.55; age range: 18-87) completed an online, self-administered Qualtrics survey investigating the social and psychological determinants of health. RESULTS: Self-infrahumanization was not associated with mental health symptomatology. Greater SBW schema endorsement was associated with greater mental health symptomatology. Self-infrahumanization and SBW schema endorsement were not associated with ATSPPH. ATSPPH mediated the interaction between SBW and self-infrahumanization on mental health symptomatology. At high and average-but not low-levels of SBW schema endorsement, greater self-infrahumanization was associated with lower positive ATSPPH, which was then associated with greater mental health symptomatology. CONCLUSIONS: Among African American women, believing that one lacks the experience of uniquely human emotions exacerbates the negative effects of endorsing SBW schema. We discuss the role of dehumanization processes in health disparities research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Skin tone, life satisfaction, and psychological distress among African Americans: The mediating effect of stigma consciousness.

This study examined the indirect effect of skin tone on psychological distress via (1) stigma consciousness and (2) life satisfaction among African American adults (N = 780; %Female = 57.65%; Mage = 37.68). Results show indirect effects of (1) skin tone on life satisfaction and (2) skin tone on psychological distress, each via stigma consciousness. Specifically, those with darker (vs. lighter) skin tones reported increased stigma consciousness, which then predicted (1) lower life satisfaction and (2) lower levels of psychological distress. Life satisfaction did not predict psychological distress. Implications for African American mental health are discussed.

Hardiness and attitudes toward professional healthcare services: Implications for healthcare service utilization among Black American adults.

This study (N = 780) examines the indirect effects of hardiness-health locus of control (HLOC), health competence (HC), health value (HV)-on past-year healthcare provider visit via attitudes toward seeking and receiving professional healthcare services (ATSRPHS). Across four health domains (dental, general health, mental, vision), ATSRPHS mediated the indirect effect of (1) HV and (2) internal HLoC on past-year healthcare provider visit. ATSRPHS also mediated the indirect effect of external HLoC on past-year visit to healthcare provider visit for general medical, mental, and vision health. ATSRPHS did not mediate any indirect effect of HC on past-year healthcare provider visit. This research contributes to understanding determinants of healthcare service utilization among Black American adults.

The seemingly 'protective' effect of internalised racism on overall health among 780 Black/African Americans: the serial mediation of stigma consciousness and locus of control.

OBJECTIVE: Internalised racism (IR) is associated with better and worse health outcomes among racial/ethnic minorities. However, the underlying mechanisms associating IR with either positive or negative health outcomes are not well understood.Design & main outcomes measures: To address this gap, this study investigated two pathways that associate increased IR with better self-reported overall health (OH; i.e. dental, mental, physical and vision health) among 780 Black/African American adults (mean age 37.68 years, 57.6% female): (1) via stigma consciousness and (2) via stigma consciousness and locus of control beliefs. RESULTS: Consistent with predictions, stigma consciousness mediated the indirect effect of IR on OH, such that higher IR was associated with lower stigma consciousness, which was associated with better self-reported OH. Confirming predictions, this indirect effect was also carried through locus of control beliefs, such that higher IR was associated with lower stigma consciousness; lower stigma consciousness was also associated with internal locus of control beliefs, which were associated with better self-reported OH. CONCLUSIONS: Although seemingly protective, this adaptive, strategic and short-term response to race-based threat in which group stereotypes are internalised can lead to negative health outcomes over time. These findings have implications for understanding IR and associated health disparities.

Psychosocial Support, Sexual Health, and HIV Risk among Older Men Who Have Sex with Younger Men.

This study examines the extent to which older males are willing to offer psychosocial and sexual health promoting support to their younger male partners, as well as the individual and relationship-level factors associated with this willingness to provide support. In total, 324 men over the age of 45, who currently or previously had younger male sexual partners, completed an anonymous online survey. Results show that participants were most willing to provide emotional support to their younger male partners, followed by health-related encouragement, HIV/STI testing support, and financial support. Of note, HIV positive status and being in a "main partnership" were associated with greater willingness to provide financial support. These results suggest that older men are willing to provide psychosocial and health promotive support to younger male partners, which could be leveraged in targeted interventions to reduce HIV transmission.

Health and Health-Related Correlates of Internalized Racism Among Racial/Ethnic Minorities: a Review of the Literature.

Internalized racism (IR) is a form of racism that leads people to internalize beliefs and stereotypes about their racial/ethnic (RE) group and/or about themselves because of their RE group membership. However, relative to other forms of racism research investigating the relationship IR and health is lacking. Thus, in an attempt to promote research on IR, this paper reviews and summarizes 112 empirical quantitative studies-representing nearly three decades of research published between January 1990 to December 2018-that examine the health and health-related correlates of IR among racial/ethnic minorities. Collectively, evidence from this review suggests that (1) IR is negatively associated with health via decrements in positive core self-evaluation; (2) IR exacerbates the relationship between other stressors and ill health; (3) IR mediates the relationship between discrimination and health; and (4) IR is a self-protective strategy that protects against ill health. Using the accumulated evidence, this review presents new conceptualizations of IR, along with specific recommendations on how to improve the scientific study of IR among racial/ethnic minorities.

Internalized Racism and Past-Year Major Depressive Disorder Among African-Americans: the Role of Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem.

Although a large body of research focuses on discrimination as a risk for depression among African-Americans, only a dearth of research focuses on internalized racism (i.e., endorsement of negative stereotypes of one's racial group) as a risk factor. In addition, no studies have yet to examine mediators and/or moderators of the relationship between internalized racism and depression. To this end, the present study examined the mediating and moderating roles of (a) self-esteem and (b) ethnic identity on the relationship between internalized racism and past-year major depressive disorder (MDD), in a nationally representative sample of African-American adults (N = 3570) from the National Survey of American Life. Results from this study revealed an indirect association between internalized racism and past-year MDD via self-esteem, but no indirect relationship via ethnic identity. Further, results show that both self-esteem and ethnic identity individually moderate the relationship between internalized racism and past-year MDD. Collectively, these findings suggest a need to further investigate mechanisms through which internalized racism impacts mental health and factors that strengthen and/or weaken the association between internalized racism and depression.

Discrimination, internalized racism, and depression: A comparative study of African American and Afro-Caribbean adults in the US.

Emerging research suggests that both perceptions of discrimination and internalized racism (i.e., endorsement of negative stereotypes of one's racial group) are associated with poor mental health. Yet, no studies to date have examined their effects on mental health with racial/ethnic minorities in the US in a single study. The present study examined: (a) the direct effects of everyday discrimination and internalized racism on risk of DSM-IV criteria of past-year major depressive disorder (MDD); (b) the interactive effects of everyday discrimination and internalized racism on risk of past-year MDD; and (c) the indirect effect of everyday discrimination on risk of past-year MDD via internalized racism. Further, we examined whether these associations differed by ethnic group membership. We utilized nationally representative data of Afro-Caribbean (N = 1,418) and African American (N = 3,570) adults from the National Survey of American Life. Results revealed that experiencing discrimination was associated with increased odds of past-year MDD among the total sample. Moreover, for Afro-Caribbeans, but not African Americans, internalized racism was associated with decreased odds of meeting criteria for past-year MDD. We did not find an interaction effect for everyday discrimination by internalized racism, nor an indirect effect of discrimination on risk of past-year MDD through internalized racism. Collectively, our findings suggest a need to investigate other potential mechanisms by which discrimination impacts mental health, and examine further the underlying factors of internalized racism as a potential self-protective strategy. Lastly, our findings point to the need for research that draws attention to the heterogeneity within the U.S. Black population.

Peer support, self-determination, and treatment engagement: a qualitative investigation.

OBJECTIVE: To address gaps in the literature concerning the relationships among participation in peer-led mental health programs, the development of self-determination in service use, and medication use and engagement with medication prescribers and other traditional providers, we conducted focus groups with individuals involved in Wellness Recovery Action Plan (WRAP) programs. METHOD: We carried out five focus groups with 54 WRAP participants and/or facilitators, and analyzed transcripts using a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Emergent themes revealed differences of opinion regarding the role and value of medication adherence, broad agreement on the benefits of WRAP in increasing self-determination and self-awareness, and positive effects of participation on patient self-advocacy, medication-related decision-making and meaningful engagement with traditional providers. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Findings emphasize the importance of examining the influence of stand-alone peer-led program involvement on relationships with traditional providers and decisions regarding medication use, as well as the heterogeneity of consumer treatment values, choices, and associated outcomes.