Biobehavioral Aspects of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review.

OBJECTIVE: This review highlights the scope and significance of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic with a focus on biobehavioral aspects and critical avenues for research. METHODS: A narrative review of the published research literature was undertaken, highlighting major empirical findings emerging during the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: Interactions among biological, behavioral, and societal processes were prominent across all regions of the globe during the first year of the COVID-19 emergency. Affective, cognitive, behavioral, socioeconomic, and technological factors all played a significant role in the spread of infection, response precautions, and outcomes of mitigation efforts. Affective symptoms, suicidality, and cognitive dysfunction have been widely described consequences of the infection, the economic fallout, and the necessary public health mitigation measures themselves. The impact of COVID-19 may be especially serious for those living with severe mental illness and/or chronic medical diseases, given the confluence of several adverse factors in a manner that appears to have syndemic potential. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic has made clear that biological and behavioral factors interact with societal processes in the infectious disease context. Empirical research examining mechanistic pathways from infection and recovery to immunological, behavioral, and emotional outcomes is critical. Examination of how emotional and behavioral factors relate to the pandemic-both as causes and as effects-can provide valuable insights that can improve management of the current pandemic and future pandemics to come.

Microbiology for the masses: teaching concepts and skills for a general audience.

Microbes are extraordinarily talented and diverse: they can perform a multitude of tasks and live in a variety of situations. The impact of diverse microbes upon society and the environment can be used to teach students critical skills for a variety of careers.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 gene expression profiling in response to growth in the presence of host epithelia.

BACKGROUND: The pathogenesis of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 infection is attributed to virulence factors encoded on multiple pathogenicity islands. Previous studies have shown that EHEC O157:H7 modulates host cell signal transduction cascades, independent of toxins and rearrangement of the cytoskeleton. However, the virulence factors and mechanisms responsible for EHEC-mediated subversion of signal transduction remain to be determined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to first identify differentially regulated genes in response to EHEC O157:H7 grown in the presence of epithelial cells, compared to growth in the absence of epithelial cells (that is, growth in minimal essential tissue culture medium alone, minimal essential tissue culture medium in the presence of 5% CO(2), and Penassay broth alone) and, second, to identify EHEC virulence factors responsible for pathogen modulation of host cell signal transduction. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Overnight cultures of EHEC O157:H7 were incubated for 6 hr at 37 degrees C in the presence or absence of confluent epithelial (HEp-2) cells. Total RNA was then extracted and used for microarray analyses (Affymetrix E. coli Genome 2.0 gene chips). Relative to bacteria grown in each of the other conditions, EHEC O157:H7 cultured in the presence of cultured epithelial cells displayed a distinct gene-expression profile. A 2.0-fold increase in the expression of 71 genes and a 2.0-fold decrease in expression of 60 other genes were identified in EHEC O157:H7 grown in the presence of epithelial cells, compared to bacteria grown in media alone. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Microarray analyses and gene deletion identified a protease on O-island 50, gene Z1787, as a potential virulence factor responsible for mediating EHEC inhibition of the interferon (IFN)-gamma-Jak1,2-STAT-1 signal transduction cascade. Up-regulated genes provide novel targets for use in developing strategies to interrupt the infectious process.

Probiotics prevent enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7-mediated inhibition of interferon-gamma-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT-1.

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 inhibits interferon (IFN)-gamma-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1 in epithelial cells. We determined the effects of probiotics on EHEC-mediated disruption of IFN-gamma-stimulated STAT-1 activation in epithelial cell lines. Confluent Intestine 407, HEp-2 and Caco-2 epithelial cells were pre-treated (3 h) with either probiotics or surface-layer proteins derived from Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 prior to infection with EHEC O157:H7 strain CL56 (m.o.i. 100:1, 6 h, 37 degrees C in 5% CO2). Subsequently, cells were washed and stimulated with human recombinant IFN-gamma (50 ng ml(-1), 0.5 h, 37 degrees C) followed by whole-cell protein extraction and immunoblotting for tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT-1. Relative to uninfected cells, STAT-1-activation was reduced after EHEC O157:H7 infection. Pre-incubation with the probiotic L. helveticus R0052 followed by EHEC infection abrogated pathogen-mediated disruption of IFN-gamma-STAT-1 signalling. As determined using Transwell inserts, probiotic-mediated protection was independent of epithelial cell contact. In contrast, pre-incubation with boiled L. helveticus R0052, an equal concentration of viable Lactobacillus rhamnosus R0011, or surface-layer proteins (0.14 mg ml(-1)) did not restore STAT-1 signalling in EHEC-infected cells. The viable probiotic agent L. helveticus R0052 prevented EHEC O157:H7-mediated subversion of epithelial cell signal transduction responses.

Escherichia albertii and Hafnia alvei are candidate enteric pathogens with divergent effects on intercellular tight junctions.

Attaching-effacing lesion-inducing Escherichia albertii and the related, but non-attaching-effacing organism, Hafnia alvei, are both implicated as enteric pathogens in humans. However, effects of these bacteria on epithelial cells are not well-characterized. Related enteropathogens, including enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, decrease epithelial barrier function by disrupting intercellular tight junctions in polarized epithelia. Therefore, this study assessed epithelial barrier function and tight junction protein distribution in polarized epithelia following bacterial infections. Polarized epithelial (MDCK-I and T84) cells grown on filter supports were infected apically with E. coli O157:H7, E. albertii, and H. alvei for 16h at 37 degrees C. All strains decreased transepithelial electrical resistance and increased permeability to a dextran probe in a host cell-dependent manner. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed that both E. coli O157:H7 and E. albertii, but not H. alvei, caused a redistribution of the tight junction protein zona occludens-1. In contrast to E. coli O157:H7, E. albertii and H. alvei did not redistribute claudin-1. Western blotting of whole cell protein extracts demonstrated that each bacterium caused differential changes in tight junction protein expression, dependent on the host cell. These findings demonstrate that E. albertii and H. alvei are candidate enteric pathogens that have both strain-specific and host epithelial cell-dependent effects.

Multiple seropathotypes of verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) disrupt interferon-gamma-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)-1.

Verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) O157:H7 inhibits interferon-gamma-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)-1 in epithelial cells, independent of Verotoxins and the locus of enterocyte effacement pathogenicity island. Although E. coli O157:H7 is the major cause of disease in humans, non-O157:H7 VTEC also cause human disease. However, the virulence properties of non-O157:H7 VTEC are less well characterized. The aims of this study were to define the ability of VTEC strains of differing seropathotypes (classified as A-E) to inhibit interferon-gamma stimulated Stat1-phosphorylation and to further characterize the bacterial-derived inhibitory factor. Confluent T84 and HEp-2 cells were infected with VTEC strains (MOI 100:1, 6h, 37 degrees C), and then stimulated with interferon-gamma (50 ng/mL) for 0.5h at 37 degrees C. Whole-cell protein extracts of infected cells were collected and prepared for immunoblotting to detect tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat1. The effects of E. coli O55 strains, the evolutionary precursors of VTEC, on Stat1-tyrosine phosphorylation were also determined. The effects of isogenic mutants of O-islands 47 and 122 were tested to determine the role of genes encoded on these putative pathogenicity islands in mediating VTEC inhibition of the interferon-gamma-Stat1 signaling cascade. To evaluate potential mechanism(s) of inhibition, VTEC O157:H7-infected cells were treated with pharmacological inhibitors, including, wortmannin and LY294002. Relative to uninfected cells, Stat1-tyrosine phosphorylation was significantly reduced after 6h infection of both T84 and HEp-2 cells by VTEC strains of all five seropathotypes. E. coli O55 strains, but not enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), also caused inhibition of Stat1-tyrosine phosphorylation, suggesting that this effect was acquired early in the evolution of VTEC. Stat1-activation did not recover in epithelial cells infected with isogenic mutants of O-islands 47 and 122, indicating that the inhibitory factor was not contained in these genomic regions. Stat1-phosphorylation remained intact when VTEC-infected cells were treated with wortmannin (0-100 nM), but not by treatment with the more specific PI3-kinase inhibitor, LY294002. Inhibition of interferon-gamma stimulated Stat1-tyrosine phosphorylation by VTEC of multiple seropathotypes indicates the presence of a common inhibitory factor that is independent of bacterial virulence in humans. The results of treatment with wortmannin suggest that the bacterial-derived inhibitory factor employs host cell signal transduction to mediate inhibition of Stat1-activation.

Conditioned medium from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli-infected T84 cells inhibits signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 activation by gamma interferon.

Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) is a cytokine important to host defense which can signal through signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (Stat1). Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) modulates host cell signal transduction to establish infection, and EHEC serotypes O113:H21 and O157:H7 both inhibit IFN-gamma-induced Stat1 tyrosine phosphorylation in vitro. The aim of this study was to delineate both bacterial and host cell factors involved in the inhibition of Stat1 tyrosine phosphorylation. Human T84 colonic epithelial cells were challenged with direct infection, viable EHEC separated from T84 cells by a filter, sodium orthovanadate, isolated flagellin, bacterial culture supernatants, and conditioned medium treated with proteinase K, trypsin, or heat inactivation. Epithelial cells were then stimulated with IFN-gamma and protein extracts were analyzed by immunoblotting. The data showed that IFN-gamma-inducible Stat1 tyrosine phosphorylation was inhibited when EHEC adhered to T84 cells, but not by bacterial culture supernatants or bacteria separated from the epithelial monolayer. Conditioned medium from T84 cells infected with EHEC O157:H7 suppressed Stat1 activation, and this was not reversed by treatment with proteinases or heat inactivation. Use of pharmacological inhibitors showed that time-dependent bacterial, but not epithelial, protein synthesis was involved. Stat1 inhibition was also independent of bacterial flagellin, host proteasome activity, and protein tyrosine phosphatases. Infection led to altered IFN-gamma receptor domain 1 subcellular distribution and decreased expression in cholesterol-enriched membrane microdomains. Thus, suppression of host cell IFN-gamma signaling by production of a contact-dependent, soluble EHEC factor may represent a novel mechanism for this pathogen to evade the host immune system.