Neuronal Autophagy: Characteristic Features and Roles in Neuronal Pathophysiology.

Autophagy is an important degradative pathway that eliminates misfolded proteins and damaged organelles from cells. Autophagy is crucial for neuronal homeostasis and function. A lack of or deficiency in autophagy leads to the accumulation of protein aggregates, which are associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. Compared with non-neuronal cells, neurons exhibit rapid autophagic flux because damaged organelles or protein aggregates cannot be diluted in post-mitotic cells; because of this, these cells exhibit characteristic features of autophagy, such as compartment-specific autophagy, which depends on polarized structures and rapid autophagy flux. In addition, neurons exhibit compartment-specific autophagy, which depends on polarized structures. Neuronal autophagy may have additional physiological roles other than amino acid recycling. In this review, we focus on the characteristics and regulatory factors of neuronal autophagy. We also describe intracellular selective autophagy in neurons and its association with neurodegenerative diseases.

Methods of measuring presynaptic function with fluorescence probes.

Synaptic vesicles, which are endogenous to neurotransmitters, are involved in exocytosis by active potentials and release neurotransmitters. Synaptic vesicles used in neurotransmitter release are reused via endocytosis to maintain a pool of synaptic vesicles. Synaptic vesicles show different types of exo- and endocytosis depending on animal species, type of nerve cell, and electrical activity. To accurately understand the dynamics of synaptic vesicles, direct observation of synaptic vesicles is required; however, it was difficult to observe synaptic vesicles of size 40-50 nm in living neurons. The exo-and endocytosis of synaptic vesicles was confirmed by labeling the vesicles with a fluorescent agent and measuring the changes in fluorescence intensity. To date, various methods of labeling synaptic vesicles have been proposed, and each method has its own characteristics, strength, and drawbacks. In this study, we introduce methods that can measure presynaptic activity and describe the characteristics of each technique.