Immunotherapy approach to allergic disease.

The causal role of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in triggering the cascade of biochemical events leading to allergic disease is well established. Treatments that selectively inhibit IgE activity are a logical approach in managing the allergic response. One such strategy utilizes rhuMAb-E25, a recombinant humanized IgG(1) monoclonal anti-IgE antibody, which binds to IgE. This anti-IgE antibody binds at the same epitope site of IgE that binds to FcvarepsilonRI and is thus non-anaphylactogenic. By binding to IgE and removing it via immune complex formation, the pool of IgE available to interact with mast cells and basophils is thereby reduced and the allergic response is attenuated. The clinical safety and efficacy of rhuMAb-E25 demonstrated in phase II studies of allergic asthma will be outlined.

IgE inhibition as a therapy for allergic disease.

Monoclonal antibodies are potentially useful therapeutic agents in a variety of immunologically mediated diseases, since they offer the theoretical advantage of selectively targeting the mediators of the immuno-pathogenesis. It has been well established that IgE antibody synthesized by the immune system plays a pivotal role in the cascade of biochemical events leading to the allergic reaction. The aim of these studies was to eliminate IgE with a monoclonal antibody as the approach for treatment of atopic disease. To this end, a murine monoclonal antibody (MAE11) directed against IgE was identified which had all of the properties necessary to interfere with IgE responses. To avoid the problems of antigenicity associated with chronic administration of murine antibodies MAE11 was humanized. The best of several humanized variants, version 25 (rhuMAb-E25), was selected for clinical trials in allergic asthma and seasonal allergic rhinitis. In a series of phase I safety studies, rhuMAb-E25, by single or multidose administrations, was shown to be very well tolerated. Phase II studies were then designed to determine whether elimination of serum IgE, as a result of rhuMAb-E25 administration, had a significant impact on allergic symptoms. Results of these clinical trials establish the involvement of IgE in the pathophysiology of rhinitis and asthma and suggest a novel treatment for allergic disease.

Differential effects of endogenous and exogenous interferon-gamma on immunoglobulin E, cellular infiltration, and airway responsiveness in a murine model of allergic asthma.

The inflammatory response as seen in human allergic asthma is thought to be regulated by Th2 cells. It has been shown that interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) can downregulate the proliferation of Th2 cells and therefore might be of therapeutic use. In the present study we have investigated the in vivo role of endogenous and exogenous IFN-gamma in a murine model with features reminiscent of human allergic asthma. IFN-gamma gene knockout (GKO) and wild-type mice were sensitized with ovalbumin and exposed to repeated ovalbumin aerosol challenges. In addition, wild-type mice were treated with intraperitoneal or nebulized recombinant murine IFN-gamma during the challenge period. Sensitized wild-type mice exhibited upregulated ovalbumin-specific IgE in serum, and airway hyperresponsiveness and infiltration of eosinophils and mononuclear cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) after ovalbumin challenge. In contrast, in GKO mice only reduced eosinophilic infiltration in the BALF was observed after ovalbumin challenge. In wild-type mice, parenteral IFN-gamma treatment downregulated ovalbumin-specific IgE levels in serum, and airway hyperresponsiveness and cellular infiltration in the BALF, whereas aerosolized IFN-gamma treatment only suppressed airway hyperresponsiveness. In vitro experiments showed that these effects of IFN-gamma appear not to be mediated via a direct effect on the cytokine production of antigen-specific Th2 cells. These data indicate that airway hyperresponsiveness can be downregulated by IFN-gamma locally in the airways, whereas for downregulation of IgE and cellular infiltration systemic IFN-gamma is needed. The present study shows that exogenous IFN-gamma can downregulate the allergic response via an antigen-specific T-cell independent mechanism, but at the same time endogenous IFN-gamma plays a role in an optimal response.

Anti-immunoglobulin E antibody treatment blocks histamine release and tissue contraction in sensitized mice.

Inhibition of antigen-specific IgE response has been shown to lead to amelioration of allergic disease symptoms. In an effort to design a therapy aimed at decreasing IgE levels, we reported previously that treatment of mice with an anti-IgE antibody coincident with the primary antigen immunization resulted in significant decreases in antigen-specific IgE synthesis, without substantially altering IgG levels. In the present study, we employed this mouse model and a surrogate antibody to investigate the capacity of anti-IgE treatment to block an established IgE response in vivo. Results of these experiments suggest that anti-IgE treatment concomitant with an antigen boost results in removal of detectable circulating IgE for at least 7 weeks (the duration of the study). Moreover, tissues removed from mice following anti-IgE treatment failed to release histamine and contract in response to antigen challenge ex vivo. These findings demonstrate that reduction of circulating IgE correlates to an inhibition of tissue mast cell sensitization and mediator release in response to antigen challenge and further supports the concept of anti-IgE treatment as a promising therapy for the treatment of allergic disease.

Murine CTLA4-IgG treatment inhibits airway eosinophilia and hyperresponsiveness and attenuates IgE upregulation in a murine model of allergic asthma.

Antigen-specific T-cell activation requires the engagement of the T-cell receptor (TCR) with antigen as well as the engagement of appropriate costimulatory molecules. One of the most important pathways of costimulation is the interaction of CD28 on the T cell with B7-1/B7-2 on antigen-presenting cells. In the present study, we have examined the in vivo effects of blocking the CD28:B7 T-cell costimulatory pathway by administration of mCTLA4-IgG in a murine model of allergic asthma. Mice were sensitized with ovalbumin and exposed to repeated ovalbumin inhalation challenges. In mice treated with a control antibody at the time of ovalbumin challenge a significant increase in the number of eosinophils (12.8 +/- 4.3 x 10(3) cells, P < 0.05) in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and airway hyperresponsiveness to methacholine (49 +/- 15%, P < 0.05) was observed. In addition, serum levels of ovalbumin-specific IgE were significantly (P < 0.01) increased after ovalbumin challenge compared with saline challenge (1,133 +/- 261 experimental units [EU]/ml and 220 +/- 63 EU/ml, respectively). In mice treated with mCTLA4-IgG at the time of ovalbumin challenge, the infiltration of eosinophils into BAL fluid and the development of airway hyperresponsiveness to methacholine were completely inhibited. The upregulation of ovalbumin-specific IgE levels in serum was attenuated by mCTLA4-IgG treatment. Furthermore, addition of mCTLA4-IgG to cultures of parabronchial lymph node cells from sensitized mice inhibited the ovalbumin-induced interleukin-4 production. These data indicate the therapeutic potential of blocking T-lymphocyte costimulation by CTLA4-IgG as a possible immunosuppressive treatment for patients with allergic asthma.

Down-regulation of Fc(epsilon)RI expression on human basophils during in vivo treatment of atopic patients with anti-IgE antibody.

Treatment of allergic disease by decreasing circulating IgE with anti-IgE Abs is currently under clinical study. Based on previous unrelated studies, it appeared likely that Fc(epsilon)RI expression on basophils and mast cells might also be regulated by levels of circulating IgE Ab. Therefore, the expression of IgE and Fc(epsilon)RI on human basophils was examined in 15 subjects receiving humanized anti-IgE mAb intravenously. Treatment with the anti-IgE mAb decreased free IgE levels to 1% of pretreatment levels and also resulted in a marked down-regulation of Fc(epsilon)RI on basophils. Median pretreatment densities of Fc(epsilon)RI were approximately 220,000 receptors per basophil and after 3 mo of treatment, the densities had decreased to a median of 8,300 receptors per basophil. Flow cytometric studies, conducted in parallel, showed similar results and also showed in a subset of 3 donors that receptors decreased with a t1/2 of approximately 3 days. The responsiveness of the cells to IgE-mediated stimulation using anti-IgE Ab was marginally decreased (approximately 40%) while the response of the same cells to stimulation with dust mite Ag, Dermatophagoides farinae, was reduced by approximately 90%. One possible explanation for these results is that Fc(epsilon)RI density is directly or indirectly regulated by plasma-free IgE levels.

Humanization of an anti-lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1 monoclonal antibody and reengineering of the humanized antibody for binding to rhesus LFA-1.

Lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1; CD11a/CD18) is involved in leukocyte adhesion during cellular interactions essential for immunologic responses and inflammation. mAbs against LFA-1 have been shown to inhibit several T cell-dependent immune functions in vitro and prevent graft failure after bone marrow transplantation in vivo. A murine anti-human CD11a mAb, MHM24, has been humanized and shown to prevent adhesion of human T cells to human keratinocytes and the proliferation of T cells in response to nonautologous leukocytes in the mixed lymphocyte response assay. However, of the nonhuman primate CD11a that we tested, the murine and humanized mAbs cross-reacted only with chimpanzee CD11a. To have a mAb available for preclinical studies in rhesus monkeys, the humanized mAb was reengineered to bind to rhesus CD11a by changing four residues in one of the complementarity-determining regions, CDR-H2, in the variable heavy domain. Cloning and molecular modeling of rhesus CD11a I-domain suggested that the changes from Lys197 and/or Arg189 in human CD11a I-domain to Glu197 and Gln189 in rhesus CD11a I-domain may be the reason that rhesus CD11a does not bind to the murine and humanized mAbs.

Long-term survival of solid organ allografts by brief anti-lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 monoclonal antibody monotherapy.

Strategies targeting lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1, CD11a/CD18) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) have previously been shown to produce long-term survival of solid organ allografts in animals only when both CD11a and ICAM-1 are targeted for a brief (6-7 days) time or when extended (14 weeks) treatment with anti-CD11a monoclonal antibody (mAb) is administered. We show that recipient pretreatment followed by a brief (13 days) treatment course with high-dose anti-CD11a mAb alone produces long-term survival of cardiac allografts in the rigorous, nonprimarily vascularized heart allograft model in mice. This treatment regimen induces specific unresponsiveness in our model. In recipients bearing long-term beating cardiac grafts after treatment with anti-CD11a mAb, there still exists a high frequency of potentially antigen-reactive T cells in isolated peripheral blood lymphocyte fractions. Therefore, clonal deletion does not appear to explain the induction of specific unresponsiveness by treatment with anti-CD11a mAb in this model. These findings support the further investigation of the use of high-dose anti-LFA-1 mAb monotherapy in the pre- and early postoperative period to promote solid organ allograft survival.

Humanization of an antibody directed against IgE.

IgE antibodies bind to specific high-affinity receptors on mast cells, leading to mast cell degranulation and release of mediators, such as histamine, which produce symptoms associated with allergy. Hence, anti-IgE antibodies that block binding of IgE to its high-affinity receptor are of potential therapeutic value in the treatment of allergy. These antibodies must also not bind to IgE once it is bound to the receptor because this would trigger histamine release. This study describes the humanization of a murine antibody, MaE11, with these characteristics. Variants of the humanized antibody were evaluated to probe the importance of framework residues on antibody binding and to determine which charged residues in the CDR interacted with IgE. We found that only five changes in human framework residues were required to provide for binding comparable to that of the original murine antibody.