Associations Between Physical Characteristics and Golf Clubhead Speed: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Historically, golf does not have a strong tradition of fitness testing and physical training. However, in recent years, both players and practitioners have started to recognise the value of a fitter and healthier body, owing to its potential positive impacts on performance, namely clubhead speed (CHS). OBJECTIVE: The aim of this meta-analysis was to examine the associations between CHS (as measured using a driver) and a variety of physical characteristics. METHODS: A systematic literature search with meta-analysis was conducted using Medline, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL and PubMed databases. Inclusion criteria required studies to have (1) determined the association between physical characteristics assessed in at least one physical test and CHS, (2) included golfers of any skill level but they had to be free from injury and (3) been peer-reviewed and published in the English language. Methodological quality was assessed using a modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index tool and heterogeneity assessed via the Q statistic and I2. To provide summary effects for each of the physical characteristics and their associations with CHS, a random effects model was used where z-transformed r values (i.e. zr) were computed to enable effect size pooling within the meta-analysis. RESULTS: Of the 3039 studies initially identified, 20 were included in the final analysis. CHS was significantly associated with lower body strength (zr = 0.47 [95% confidence intervals {CI} 0.24-0.69]), upper body strength (zr = 0.48 [95% CI 0.28-0.68]), jump displacement (zr = 0.53 [95% CI 0.28-0.78]), jump impulse (zr = 0.82 [95% CI 0.63-1.02]), jumping peak power (zr = 0.66 [95% CI 0.53-0.79]), upper body explosive strength (zr = 0.67 [95% CI 0.53-0.80]), anthropometry (zr = 0.43 [95% CI 0.29-0.58]) and muscle capacity (zr = 0.17 [95% CI 0.04-0.31]), but not flexibility (zr = - 0.04 [95% CI - 0.33 to 0.26]) or balance (zr = - 0.06 [95% CI - 0.46 to 0.34]). CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this meta-analysis highlight a range of physical characteristics are associated with CHS. Whilst significant associations ranged from trivial to large, noteworthy information is that jump impulse produced the strongest association, upper body explosive strength showed noticeably larger associations than upper body strength, and flexibility was not significant. These findings can be used to ensure practitioners prioritise appropriate fitness testing protocols for golfers.

Effects of Physical Training and Associations Between Physical Performance Characteristics and Golf Performance in Female Players: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis.

ABSTRACT: Robinson, L, Murray, A, Ehlert, A, Wells, J, Jarvis, P, Turner, A, Glover, D, Coughlan, D, Hembrough, R, and Bishop, C. Effects of physical training and associations between physical performance characteristics and golf performance in female players: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): e646-e655, 2023-The aims of this systematic review were to assess the association between physical performance and measures of golf performance, and the effects of physical training on measures of golf performance, in female golfers. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Medline, and CINAHL. Inclusion criteria required studies to (a) have conducted a physical training intervention of any duration in female players and determine the effects on measures of golf performance, (b) determine the association between physical performance in at least one test and golf performance in female players, and (c) be peer-reviewed and published in English language. Methodological quality was assessed using a modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index tool, and heterogeneity was examined through the Q statistic and I2 . Pooled effect sizes were calculated using standardized mean differences (SMDs) (with 95% confidence interval [CI]s) within a random-effects model, with Egger's regression test used to assess small study bias (inclusive of publication bias). Of the 2,378 articles screened, only 9 were included in the final review, with 3 of these being associative by design and 6 being training interventions. From an associative standpoint, clubhead speed (CHS) was reported in all 3 studies and was associated with measures of strength ( r = 0.54), lower-body power ( r = 0.60), upper-body power ( r = 0.56-0.57), and flexibility ( r = 0.52-0.71). When assessing the effects of physical training interventions, CHS was again the most commonly reported golf outcome measure ( n = 5). The random-effect model indicated that CHS significantly improves within each training group following training interventions (SMD = 0.73 [95% CIs: 0.32-1.14], Z = 3.50, p < 0.001), with trivial heterogeneity ( I2 = 0.00%, Q = 0.18; p = 0.9963) and no prevalence of small study bias depicted through the Egger's regression test ( z = -0.28, p = 0.78). From the available research, it seems that CHS can be positively affected from strength, power, and flexibility training interventions. From an associative standpoint, only 3 studies have been conducted solely in female players, with one showcasing questionable methodology. Future research should aim to carefully select test measures which better represent the physical capacities needed for the sport when determining the effects of and relationships with golf performance.

Validity of a Smartphone App Using Artificial Intelligence for the Real-Time Measurement of Barbell Velocity in the Bench Press Exercise.

ABSTRACT: Balsalobre-Fernández, C, Xu, J, Jarvis, P, Thompson, S, Tannion, K, and Bishop, C. Validity of a smartphone app using artificial intelligence for the real-time measurement of barbell velocity in the bench press exercise. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): e640-e645, 2023-The purpose of this study was to explore the validity and within-session reliability of the newly developed My Jump Lab application (app), which uses artificial intelligence techniques to monitor barbell velocity in real time. Twenty-seven sport science students performed 5 repetitions at 50 and 75% of their self-reported bench press 1 repetition maximum (1RM) during a single testing session, whereas barbell velocity was concurrently measured using the app (installed on an iPhone 12 Pro) and the GymAware linear position transducer (LPT). A very high correlation was observed between devices at each loading condition (50% 1RM: r = 0.90 [0.82-0.97]; 75% 1RM: r = 0.92 [0.86-0.98]). Results showed trivial differences between the app and LPT at both 50% 1RM (g = -0.06) and 75% 1RM (g = -0.12). Bland-Altman analysis showed a bias estimate of -0.010 m·s-1 and -0.026 m·s-1 for the 50 and 75% 1RM, respectively. Finally, similar levels of reliability, as revealed by the coefficient of variation, were observed for both devices (50% 1RM: LPT = 6.52%, app = 8.17%; 75% 1RM: LPT = 12.10%, app = 13.55%). Collectively, the findings of this study support the use of My Jump Lab for the measurement of real-time barbell velocity in the bench press exercise.

Continuous glucose monitoring in a healthy population: understanding the post-prandial glycemic response in individuals without diabetes mellitus.

Continuous glucose monitoring has become a common adjunct in the management of Diabetes Mellitus. However, there has been a recent trend among individuals without diabetes using these devices as a means of monitoring their health. The increased visibility of glucose data has allowed users to study the effect lifestyle has upon post-prandial glucose levels. Although post-prandial hyperglycemia is well understood in the setting of diabetes, its impact in individuals without diabetes is less well defined. This article reviews the factors which contribute to post-prandial hyperglycemia in individuals without diabetes and how the data obtained from continuous glucose monitoring can be used to improve an individual's metabolic health.

Point-of-care testing performed by healthcare professionals outside the hospital setting: consensus based recommendations from the IFCC Committee on Point-of-Care Testing (IFCC C-POCT).

The International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC) Committee on Point-of-Care Testing (C-POCT) supports the use of point-of-care testing (POCT) outside of the hospital setting performed by healthcare professionals without formal laboratory education because of its numerous benefits. However, these benefits are associated with risks that must be managed, to ensure the provision of reliable test results and minimize harm to the patient. Healthcare professionals, local regulatory bodies, accredited laboratories as well as manufacturers should actively be engaged in education, oversight and advice to ensure that the healthcare professional selects the appropriate equipment and is able to analyze, troubleshoot and correctly interpret the point-of-care (POC) test results.

Validity and Reliability of Strategy Metrics to Assess Countermovement Jump Performance using the Newly Developed My Jump Lab Smartphone Application.

The aim of the present study was to analyse the validity and reliability of the newly developed My Jump Lab smartphone app, which includes the option to calculate time to take-off and the reactive strength index modified (RSI_Mod - calculated as jump height divided by time to take-off), in addition to jump height. Twenty-seven postgraduate sport science students attended a single test session and performed three maximal effort countermovement jumps (CMJ) on twin force plates, whilst concurrently being filmed using the app. Results showed no significant differences in jump height between measurement methods (g = 0.00) or RSI_Mod (g = -0.49), although a significant difference was evident for time to take-off (g = 0.68). When a correction factor was applied to time to take-off data, no meaningful differences were evident (g = 0.00), which also had a knock-on effect for RSI_Mod (g = 0.10). Bland-Altman analysis showed near perfect levels of agreement for jump height with a bias estimate of 0.001 m, whilst time to take-off reported a bias estimate of 0.075 s initially and, 0.000 s once the correction factor was applied. For RSI_Mod, bias estimate was initially -0.048, and 0.006 once calculated with the corrected time to take-off data. Pearson's r correlations were: 0.98 for jump height, 0.81 for time to take-off, and 0.85 for RSI_Mod. Based on the findings from the present study, and with the inclusion of the newly embedded correction factor, My Jump Lab can now be used as both a valid and reliable means of measuring time to take-off and RSI_Mod in the CMJ.

The weight status of children in late childhood within south East Wales and predictions for their future health.

BACKGROUND: Current child measurements of weight status in Wales are determined at early childhood only. A further measurement at late childhood could identify adiposity levels prior to adolescence and young adulthood. The aim of this study therefore was to determine current adiposity levels in a cohort of children at late childhood and present a prediction of future levels upon entering young adulthood. METHODS: In total, 288 boys (M age = 10.94 years, SD = 0.58) and 257 girls (M age = 10.78 years, SD = 0.63) from South East Wales were measured for anthropometry and their body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) determined. International Obesity Task Force data predicted their BMI at age 18 years. RESULTS: Approximately one quarter of boys and girls in late childhood were classified at an unhealthy weight. Predictive data showed that by age 18 years, this percentage had increased to approximately one-third in both genders. CONCLUSION: The overweight and obesity levels in our cohort were high and predicted that many could become obese adults. This study therefore supports the call for the current Wales child measurement programme to be extended to report weight status in late childhood.

The Association Between Interlimb Asymmetry and Athletic Performance Tasks: A Season-Long Study in Elite Academy Soccer Players.

ABSTRACT: Bishop, C, Read, P, Bromley, T, Brazier, J, Jarvis, P, Chavda, S, and Turner, A. The association between interlimb asymmetry and athletic performance tasks: A season-long study in elite academy soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 36(3): 787-795, 2022-The aims of this study were to determine the association between asymmetry and measures of speed and change of direction speed (CODS) performance throughout a competitive soccer season and, determine whether any observed changes in asymmetry were associated with changes in speed and CODS performance. Eighteen elite male under-23 academy soccer players performed unilateral countermovement jumps, unilateral drop jumps (DJ), 10- and 30-m sprints, and 505 CODS tests at pre, mid, and end of season. No significant relationships were evident during preseason or midseason between asymmetry and speed or CODS performance. Significant correlations were shown at the end of season between DJ height asymmetry and 10-m sprint time (ρ = 0.62; p = 0.006) and 505 time on the right limb (ρ = 0.65; p = 0.003). No significant correlations between changes in asymmetry and changes in speed or CODS were evident at any time point. Although numerous studies have reported associations between asymmetry and reduced athletic performance, it seems that these associations with speed and CODS do not track consistently over time. Thus, suggestions for the reduction of asymmetry that may indirectly enhance athletic performance cannot be made.

Magnitude or Direction? Seasonal Variation of Interlimb Asymmetry in Elite Academy Soccer Players.

ABSTRACT: Bishop, C, Read, P, Chavda, S, Jarvis, P, Brazier, J, Bromley, T, and Turner, A. Magnitude or direction? Seasonal variation of interlimb asymmetry in elite academy soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 1031-1037, 2022-Previous research has highlighted a distinct lack of longitudinal data for asymmetry. The aims of this study were to provide seasonal variation data for the magnitude and direction of asymmetry. Eighteen elite male academy soccer players (under-23) performed unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJs) and unilateral drop jumps (DJs) during pre-season, mid-season, and end of season time points. Recorded metrics for asymmetry included jump height and concentric impulse for the CMJ, and jump height and reactive strength index for the DJ. The magnitude of asymmetry showed trivial to small changes throughout the season (CMJ effect size [ES] range = -0.43 to 0.05; DJ ES range = -0.18 to 0.41). However, Kappa coefficients showed poor to substantial levels of agreement for the direction of asymmetry during the CMJ (Kappa = -0.06 to 0.77) and DJ (Kappa = -0.10 to 0.78) throughout the season. These data show that when monitoring asymmetry, the magnitude alone may provide a false impression of consistent scores over time. By contrast, monitoring the direction of asymmetry highlights its task and variable nature and is suggested as a useful tool for practitioners who wish to monitor asymmetry over the course of a competitive soccer season.

Reactive Strength Index and its Associations with Measures of Physical and Sports Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Reactive strength index (RSI) is used frequently in the testing and monitoring of athletes. Associations with sports performance measures may vary dependent on the task but a literature synthesis has not been performed. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this meta-analysis was to examine associations between RSI measured during rebound jumping tasks and measures of strength, linear and change of direction speed, and endurance performance. METHODS: A systematic literature search with meta-analysis was conducted using databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Ovid. Inclusion criteria required studies to (1) examine the relationship between RSI and an independent measure of physical or sporting performance for at least one variable; and (2) provide rebound test instructions to minimise ground contact time and maximise displacement of the jump. Methodological quality was assessed using a modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index tool. Heterogeneity was examined via the Q statistic and I2. Pooled effect sizes were calculated using a random-effects model, with Egger's regression test used to assess small study bias (inclusive of publication bias). RESULTS: Of the 1320 citations reviewed, a total of 32 studies were included in this meta-analysis. RSI was significantly and moderately associated with strength (isometric: r = 0.356 [95% CI 0.209-0.504]; isotonic: r = 0.365 [0.075-0.654]; pooled strength measures: r = 0.339 [0.209-0.469]) and endurance performance (r = 0.401 [0.173-0.629]). Significant moderate and negative associations were indicated for acceleration (r = - 0.426 [- 0.562 to - 0.290]), top speed (r = - 0.326 [- 0.502 to - 0.151]), and significant large negative associations were noted for change of direction speed (r = - 0.565 [- 0.726 to - 0.404]). Heterogeneity was trivial to moderate across all measures (I2 = 0-66%), and significant for isotonic strength and change of direction speed (p < 0.1). Evidence of small study bias was apparent for both acceleration and change of direction speed (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We identified primarily moderate associations between RSI and independent measures of physical and sporting performance, and the strength of these relationships varied based on the task and physical quality assessed. The findings from this meta-analysis can help practitioners to develop more targeted testing and monitoring processes. Future research may wish to examine if associations are stronger in tasks that display greater specificity.

Cold Water Immersion Offers No Functional or Perceptual Benefit Compared to a Sham Intervention During a Resistance Training Program.

ABSTRACT: Wilson, LJ, Dimitriou, L, Hills, FA, Gondek, MB, van Wyk, A, Turek, V, Rivkin, T, Villiere, A, Jarvis, P, Miller, S, Turner, A, and Cockburn, E. Cold water immersion offers no functional or perceptual benefit compared to a sham intervention during a resistance training program. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2720-2727, 2021-Cold water immersion (CWI) is regularly used by athletes as a postexercise recovery strategy, but relatively little is understood about potential training adaptations associated with habitual use. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of repeated CWI or a sham intervention on adaptations to a lower body resistance training program. Thirteen men (26 ± 6 years; 83.6 ± 15.7 kg) familiar with resistance training were allocated into a CWI (10 minutes at 10° C) or sham group and completed 2 × 4-week blocks of lower body resistance training. Subjects completed a total of 16 training sessions (2 × session·week-1), with each session immediately followed by their allocated recovery intervention. Measures of perceptual markers, muscle function, and muscle architecture were recorded at baseline, midpoint, and post-training. Data were analyzed using factorial analysis of variances. The training program resulted in significant increases in muscle fibre pennation angle (p = 0.009), isometric peak force (p = 0.018), and 1/4 squat (p < 0.001) with no differences between groups (all p > 0.05). There were no differences in perceptual responses between groups. Despite the popularity of CWI as a postexercise recovery intervention, the findings from the present study demonstrated no functional or perceptual benefit compared with a sham intervention during progressive strength and power training. Furthermore, there was no detrimental impact of CWI on morphological adaptations after 16 exposures. These findings are important for athletes and practitioners wishing to use CWI as an acute recovery strategy after training, without blunting potential training adaptations.

Effects of Interlimb Asymmetries on Acceleration and Change of Direction Speed: A Between-Sport Comparison of Professional Soccer and Cricket Athletes.

ABSTRACT: Bishop, C, Read, P, Brazier, J, Jarvis, P, Chavda, S, Bromley, T, and Turner, A. Effects of interlimb asymmetries on acceleration and change of direction speed: a between-sport comparison of professional soccer and cricket athletes. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2095-2101, 2021-The first aim of this study was to quantify and compare asymmetries among professional soccer and cricket athletes. The second aim was to examine the association between asymmetries and performance within both groups. Professional soccer (n = 18) and cricket (n = 23) athletes performed single-leg countermovement jumps, single-leg drop jumps (SLDJs), a 10-m sprint, and 505 change of direction speed (CODS) tests. Interlimb asymmetries were calculated as a standard percentage difference, Mann-Whitney U tests conducted to establish systematic bias between groups, and Spearman's r correlations used to establish the relationship between asymmetry scores and speed and CODS performance. Soccer athletes sprinted faster, jumped higher, and had a greater reactive strength index (RSI) score than cricket athletes (p < 0.05). However, cricketers showed reduced ground contact times compared with footballers during the SLDJ (p < 0.05). The cricket group showed significantly greater jump height (asymmetry = 11.49 vs. 6.51%; p = 0.015) and RSI (asymmetry = 10.37 vs. 5.95%; p = 0.014) asymmetries compared with soccer players. These metrics were also associated with slower 505 times in the cricket group only (r = 0.56 -0.74; p < 0.01). These results show that between-limb asymmetries exhibit no association with speed and CODS in elite soccer players but are associated with reduced CODS in elite cricketers. Thus, the reduction of interlimb asymmetries may be of greater consideration when working with cricket vs. soccer athletes.

Last months of life of people with intellectual disabilities: A UK population-based study of death and dying in intellectual disability community services.

BACKGROUND: Population-based data are presented on the nature of dying in intellectual disability services. METHODS: A retrospective survey was conducted over 18 months with a sample of UK-based intellectual disability service providers that supported over 12,000. Core data were obtained for 222 deaths within this population. For 158 (71%) deaths, respondents returned a supplemented and modified version of VOICES-SF. RESULTS: The observed death was 12.2 deaths per 1,000 people supported per year, but just over a third deaths had been deaths anticipated by care staff. Mortality patterns, place of usual care and availability of external support exerted considerable influence over outcomes at the end of life. CONCLUSION: Death is not a common event in intellectual disability services. A major disadvantage experienced by people with intellectual disabilities was that their deaths were relatively unanticipated. People with intellectual disabilities living in supported living settings, even when their dying was anticipated, experienced poorer outcomes.

Retrograde signalling in a virescent mutant triggers an anterograde delay of chloroplast biogenesis that requires GUN1 and is essential for survival.

Defects in chloroplast development are 'retrograde-signalled' to the nucleus, reducing synthesis of photosynthetic or related proteins. The Arabidopsiscue8 mutant manifests virescence, a slow-greening phenotype, and is defective at an early stage in plastid development. Greening cotyledons or early leaf cells of cue8 exhibit immature chloroplasts which fail to fill the available cellular space. Such chloroplasts show reduced expression of genes of photosynthetic function, dependent on the plastid-encoded polymerase (PEP), while the expression of genes of housekeeping function driven by the nucleus-encoded polymerase (NEP) is elevated, a phenotype shared with mutants in plastid genetic functions. We attribute this phenotype to reduced expression of specific PEP-controlling sigma factors, elevated expression of RPOT (NEP) genes and maintained replication of plastid genomes (resulting in densely coalesced nucleoids in the mutant), i.e. it is due to an anterograde nucleus-to-chloroplast correction, analogous to retention of a juvenile plastid state. Mutants in plastid protein import components, particularly those involved in housekeeping protein import, also show this 'retro-anterograde' correction. Loss of CUE8 also causes changes in mRNA editing. The overall response has strong fitness value: loss of GUN1, an integrator of retrograde signalling, abolishes elements of it (albeit not others, including editing changes), causing bleaching and eventual seedling lethality upon cue8 gun1. This highlights the adaptive significance of virescence and retrograde signalling. This article is part of the theme issue 'Retrograde signalling from endosymbiotic organelles'.

Perceived inequalities in care and support for older women from Black and minority ethnic backgrounds in Wales: findings from a survey exploring dignity from service providers' perspectives.

Objective: As part of a large mixed-method study aimed at capturing understandings of dignity, and care expectations of community dwelling older women from Black and minority ethnic (BME) backgrounds living in Wales, the aim of this paper is to compare service providers' perceptions of their care and support provided to older people in general, and to older women from BME backgrounds in particular, with a focus on two dignity indicators: care and support needs, and effective communication.Design: A survey design was used.Results: A total of 124 responses from service providers in Wales were received. Perceived inequalities in care and support were found. Although most respondents reported that care and support provision was generally acceptable, more respondents believed that compared to older people in general, older women from BME backgrounds were seldom or never offered opportunities and support to express their needs, were involved in their own care, were provided appropriate information, had their key needs especially less visible needs (psychological and religious needs) been taken into account, or were communicated with effectively (all p < 0.05). In some cases, respondents tended to report more positively in areas related to their own practice.Conclusion: We suggest that learning from the views and perceptions of service providers, as well as older people and their families, remains key to developing services for the UK's increasingly diverse and ageing population. A better understanding of how inequalities may occur, their impact on older people and their families, and how they may be minimised can inform the development of high quality care for older people regardless of their ethnic and cultural backgrounds in Wales, other parts of the UK and beyond.

End-of-life care in intellectual disability: a retrospective cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Adults with intellectual disability (ID) experience inequality in access to healthcare that is considered to extend to end-of-life care. Their experiences of healthcare at the end of life and how these compare with the general population are unknown. AIM: To describe the end-of-life care outcomes for adults with ID living in residential care in the UK using the VOICES-SF questionnaire and compare these with the general population. DESIGN: Nationwide population-based postbereavement survey. PARTICIPANTS: 38 ID care providers took part in the study. The supported over 13 000 people with ID. Over the 18-month period of data collection, 222 deaths were reported. The survey was completed, by care staff, for 157 (70.7%) of those deaths. RESULTS: Decedents had complex health, functional and behavioural needs. Death was unanticipated in a high proportion of cases. Quality of care provided across care settings was generally well rated. However, hospital care and care provided at the time of was less well rated, particularly in comparison with the general population. Respondents reported low levels of involvement in care and awareness of approaching death among adults with ID, and lower than in the general population. CONCLUSIONS: Access to end-of-life care for adults with ID may be constrained by a failure to identify approaching the end of life. The high proportion of unexpected deaths in this population warrants further study. There is a need to increase and support the involvement of adults with ID to be active partners in planning care at the end of their lives.

Intracerebral Hemorrhage in a Young Urban Population: Etiologies and Outcomes in Patients 50 and Younger.

GOAL: There is limited research on intracerebral hemorrhage in young urban populations. There is reduced access to healthcare and a high prevalence of multiple comorbidities in this vulnerable population. We studied the etiologies and outcomes of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in an urban North Philadelphia cohort aged 50 years old and younger. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective chart review of subjects 50 years old and younger who presented with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage at Temple University Hospital was conducted. A novel scoring system was used to classify the cause of each intracerebral hemorrhage. This system was used to assign a degree of likelihood that hypertension, amyloid angiopathy, tumor, oral anticoagulants, vascular malformations, infrequent causes, or cryptogenic etiologies were present. Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage was excluded. The prevalence of each risk factor and outcomes were analyzed. FINDINGS: Of the 110 patients in the study, the most common etiology was hypertension (82.7%). There was no statistically significant difference in mortality between patients with multiple possible etiologies for their hemorrhage. Vascular malformations and cavernomas were rare (5.5%). CONCLUSIONS: Hypertension was the most common cause of intracerebral hemorrhage in a young urban population. The presence of multiple possible etiologies does not correlate with a worse prognosis of mortality. There is a need for further research into hemorrhagic stroke in young populations.

Using Unilateral Strength, Power and Reactive Strength Tests to Detect the Magnitude and Direction of Asymmetry: A Test-Retest Design.

The aims of the present study were to determine test-retest reliability for unilateral strength and power tests used to quantify asymmetry and determine the consistency of both the magnitude and direction of asymmetry between test sessions. Twenty-eight recreational trained sport athletes performed unilateral isometric squat, countermovement jump (CMJ) and drop jump (DJ) tests over two test sessions. Inter-limb asymmetry was calculated from both the best trial and as an average of three trials for each test. Test reliability was computed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), coefficient of variation (CV) and standard error of measurement (SEM). In addition, paired samples t-tests were used to determine systematic bias between test sessions and Kappa coefficients to report how consistently asymmetry favoured the same side. Within and between-session reliability ranged from moderate to excellent (ICC range = 0.70⁻0.96) and CV values ranged from 3.7⁻13.7% across tests. Significant differences in asymmetry between test sessions were seen for impulse during the isometric squat (p = 0.04; effect size = ⁻0.60) but only when calculating from the best trial. When computing the direction of asymmetry across test sessions, levels of agreement were fair to substantial for the isometric squat (Kappa = 0.29⁻0.64), substantial for the CMJ (Kappa = 0.64⁻0.66) and fair to moderate for the DJ (Kappa = 0.36⁻0.56). These results show that when asymmetry is computed between test sessions, the group mean is generally devoid of systematic bias; however, the direction of asymmetry shows greater variability and is often inter-changeable. Thus, practitioners should consider both the direction and magnitude of asymmetry when monitoring inter-limb differences in healthy athlete populations.