Online and offline dating violence: same same, but different?

BACKGROUND: Violent behaviors in romantic relationships among adolescents and young people are pressing social matter as they have an effect on both victims and aggressors. Moreover, in the last decades, new forms of harassment, control, and abuse through social networks and mobile phones have arisen. Therefore, now forms of online and offline dating violence coexist. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to analyze the prevalence rates by sex and age and the co-occurrence of online and offline dating violence. Moreover, the roles of online and offline dating violence aggressors and victims for their self-esteem, hostility, general psychological state, and emotional intelligence were investigated. METHOD: Three hundred forty-one university students from the Basque Country, Spain, participated in the study. They completed six validated instruments related to the mentioned variables. RESULTS: Results highlight the high prevalence of online and offline dating violence in the sample and the co-occurrence of both types. No gender nor sex differences were found for online and offline dating violence perpetration and victimization. The correlation between online and offline dating violence was confirmed, and the reciprocity of violence is greater for offline violence. In relation to the role, both types of victims (online and offline) showed higher levels of hostility and psychological symptomatology than non-victims, but differences in self-esteem and emotional regulation were found in these modalities. Online and offline perpetrators shared hostility and some psychological symptoms as characteristics compared to non-victims, but differed in other symptoms and emotional intelligence. CONCLUSION: There is a continuum between offline and online victimization perpetration albeit differences in the characteristics such as self-esteem, emotional intelligence, and general functioning exist.

Online and offline dating violence: same same, but different?

Abstract Background Violent behaviors in romantic relationships among adolescents and young people are pressing social matter as they have an effect on both victims and aggressors. Moreover, in the last decades, new forms of harassment, control, and abuse through social networks and mobile phones have arisen. Therefore, now forms of online and offline dating violence coexist. Objectives The aim was to analyze the prevalence rates by sex and age and the co-occurrence of online and offline dating violence. Moreover, the roles of online and offline dating violence aggressors and victims for their self-esteem, hostility, general psychological state, and emotional intelligence were investigated. Method Three hundred forty-one university students from the Basque Country, Spain, participated in the study. They completed six validated instruments related to the mentioned variables. Results Results highlight the high prevalence of online and offline dating violence in the sample and the co-occurrence of both types. No gender nor sex differences were found for online and offline dating violence perpetration and victimization. The correlation between online and offline dating violence was confirmed, and the reciprocity of violence is greater for offline violence. In relation to the role, both types of victims (online and offline) showed higher levels of hostility and psychological symptomatology than non-victims, but differences in self-esteem and emotional regulation were found in these modalities. Online and offline perpetrators shared hostility and some psychological symptoms as characteristics compared to non-victims, but differed in other symptoms and emotional intelligence. Conclusion There is a continuum between offline and online victimization perpetration albeit differences in the characteristics such as self-esteem, emotional intelligence, and general functioning exist.

Measuring Cyber Dating Violence: Reliability and Validity of the Escala de CiberViolencia en Parejas Adolescentes (Cib-VPA) in Spanish Young Adults / La evaluación de la ciberviolencia en el noviazgo: fiabilidad y validez de la Escala de Ciber-Violencia en Parejas Adolescentes (Cib-VPA) en adultos jóvenes españoles

The aim of this study was to obtain validity evidence of the Escala de Ciber-Violencia en Parejas Adolescentes (Cib-VPA) in the Spanish young adults. A total of 298 undergraduate students (222 women, 75 men and 2 people who identified themselves as ‘other’) completed the Cib-VPA and other related measures of offline and online dating violence. Internal consistency and construct, convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated. In line with the original validation study, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) provided evidence for an 18-item model comprising 2 subscales, with 2 factors per subscale. All had acceptable internal consistency values. Total and subscale scores correlated positively with online and offline dating violence measures, with these correlations being stronger in subscales evaluating violence in the same direction (perpetrated or victimisation). As expected, no differences were observed according to gender. This study shows validity evidences of Cib-VPA scores, which can be quickly and inexpensively administered to large samples of young adults. (AU)

El objetivo de este estudio fue poner a prueba la validez de la Escala de Ciber-Violencia en Parejas Adolescentes (Cib-VPA) en adultos jóvenes españoles. Un total de 298 estudiantes universitarios (222 mujeres, 75 hombres y 2 personas que se identificaron como “otros”) cumplimentaron la Cib-VPA y otras medidas relacionadas con la violencia en el noviazgo, convencional y ciberviolencia. Se evaluó la consistencia interna y la validez de constructo, convergente y discriminante. En consonancia con el estudio de validación original, un análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) evidenció un modelo de 18 ítems compuesto por 2 subescalas, con 2 factores por subescala. Todos tenían valores de consistencia interna aceptables. Las puntuaciones totales y de las subescalas correlacionaron positivamente con las medidas de violencia en el noviazgo, tanto convencional como ciberviolencia, siendo estas correlaciones más fuertes en las subescalas que evalúan la violencia en la misma dirección (perpetrada o victimización). Como se esperaba, no se observaron diferencias en función del género. Este estudio confirma la validez de las puntuaciones del Cib-VPA, que puede ser administrado de forma rápida y económica a grandes muestras de jóvenes adultos. (AU)

La ciberviolencia en parejas jóvenes y factores predictores / Cyberviolence in young couples and predictors

Los objetivos de esta investigación fueron analizar la presencia de laciberviolencia en parejas jóvenes, explorar las asociaciones entre la ciberviolencia,la dependencia emocional, la empatía y las relaciones filio parentales, e identificarfactores predictores de la ciberviolencia. Para ello, se seleccionó una muestra deconveniencia compuesta por 469 estudiantes universitarios. Estos completaron la“Escala de violencia de pareja en las redes sociales en adolescentes” el“Instrumento de vínculo parental”, el de “Dependencia emocional en el noviazgode jóvenes y adolescentes” y la “Escala de empatía básica”. El 51,9% de la muestraafirmaba haber sufrido ciberviolencia y el 56,6% admitía haberla ejercido. Loschicos puntuaron más alto que las chicas en ciberviolencia y cibervictimización. Seencontró que a mayor nivel de estudios menos ciberviolencia y, a mayor númerode parejas, mayor posibilidad de sufrir ciberviolencia. La escasa evidencia empíricaacerca de los factores relacionados con la ciberviolencia apunta a la importancia deseguir investigando más profundamente sobre variables individuales y familiares. (AU)

The aims of this research were to analyze the presence of cyberviolence inyoung couples, to explore the associations between cyberviolence, emotionaldependence, empathy, and filioparental relationships, and to identify predictors ofcyberviolence. For this purpose, a convenience sample consisting of 469 universitystudents was selected. They completed the following measures: The AdolescentSocial Network Partner Violence Scale, the Parental Bonding Instrument, the DatingEmotional Dependence in Youth and Adolescents, and the Basic Empathy Scale.51.9% of the sample admitted to having suffered cyber-violence, and 56.6%admitted to having perpetrated it. Boys scored higher than girls on cyberviolenceand cybervictimization. It was found that the higher the level of education, thelower level of cyberviolence and the higher the number of partners, the greater thepossibility of suffering cyberviolence. The scarce empirical evidence about thefactors related to cyberviolence points to the need of further research on individualand family variables. (AU)

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic as perceived by Older People in Northern Spain.

PURPOSE: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a major impact on people's lives at all levels. This qualitative study is concerned with exploring the perspective of people over 67 years of age in relation to the changes experienced in their lives, the perception of the treatment of older adults during the pandemic, their attitude towards tackling the situation resulting from the pandemic, and their expectations for the future. METHODS: Qualitative methodology was used. A total of 26 participants completed semi-structured interviews. An inductive approach was applied and five main themes emerged from the participants' discourses: lifestyle, health, social relations, older people and confinement, or pandemic. RESULTS: The pandemic has only partially disrupted participants' learning and participation activities. In some cases, they reported having experienced mild physical and psychological symptoms and missing physical contact. However, they have been able to recognize certain positive aspects of the confinement and value the use of technology as a means of maintaining relationships and learning. Although their adaptive skills are clear, they perceive positive and negative discrimination in relation to age. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the perception of vulnerability that we have towards older people is erroneous, since they have been shown to have the capacity to display resilience and strength in the face of adversity.

Factors related to compliance with the COVID-19 health regulations among young people.

The coronavirus pandemic has affected all facets of our lives and all ages and social strata worldwide. Measures have been taken to protect against the spread of the virus, such as more rigorous hand hygiene, the use of face masks and social distancing. However, the focus has often been on young people, who have been seen as a group lacking sufficient respect for government-imposed measures. This review outlines the preventive measures that have been taken in different countries and discusses their specific impact on young people and adolescents, taking into account the developmental stage and concrete needs of this age group. It summarizes those studies that have provided information on compliance with preventive measures by young people and adolescents, concluding that although compliance levels among this age group are lower than among older adults, the general view of youths as non-compliant is not consistent with real, objective data. The review also summarizes different views regarding the possible reasons for this lower level of compliance, taking into account both social (gender and age) and personal factors (personality, empathy, prosociality, self-control, cognitive styles and motivations), and discusses the practical implications of these findings for the future.

Cyber Dating Violence Prevention Programs in Universal Populations: A Systematic Review.

Although the technological revolution of recent decades has produced undeniable advances, it has also generated problems derived from new forms of human communication, especially among the younger population. This is the case with cyber dating violence, a problem that affects between 12% and 56% of young couples, making the need for preventive intervention patently evident. This study attempts to fill a gap in the literature in this field, carrying out a systematic review of universal cyber dating violence prevention programs, analyzing their characteristics and the evidence provided of their effectiveness. Following the PRISMA method, only 3 programs met the inclusion criteria: the DARSI program, the Dat-e Adolescence program and the Brief Incremental Theory of Personality (ITP) adolescent dating violence prevention program. All were reported to be effective, based on different indicators. Given the small body of work published to date and the limitations of the aforementioned programs, future research should aim to design and validate a greater number of programs that serve as tools for addressing this problem in a timely manner, in order to avoid not only the serious consequences it has for victims, but also its escalation towards adulthood.

Salud mental positiva: Del concepto al constructo. Evolución histórica y revisión de teorías / Saúde mental positiva: Do conceito ao construto. Evolução histórica e revisão de teorías / Positive mental health: From the concept to the construct

CONTEXTO: Definir la Salud Mental Positiva (SMP) y conocer la “etiología de la Salud Mental” sigue resultando difícil. Los estudios para conceptualizar y operacionalizar la promoción de la Salud Mental han aumentado exponencialmente, originándose múltiples conceptos afines como Bienestar Psicológico, Florecimiento o SMP. OBJETIVO(S): Analizar la SMP como concepto para describir su evolución histórica. (2) Analizar la SMP como constructo, explorando en paralelo sus dimensiones y factores propuestos en los diversos modelos teóricos existentes. METODOLOGÍARevisión de la literatura mediante búsqueda en las bases de datos Web of Science, PubMed, Scielo, PsycINFO y Psicodoc, cuyos criterios de inclusión fue: estar escritos en inglés, español o portugués, disponibles en full-text y cuya temática trate de la SMP. Los términos de búsqueda fueron: Salud Mental Positiva, Promoción de la Salud Mental, Bienestar, Bienestar Psicológico, Bienestar Emocional y Flourish. RESULTADOS: Se obtuvieron un total de 128 artículos que daban respuesta a los objetivos, aunque finalmente se utilizaron 20 para la realización de este trabajo. Tras el análisis categorial de la información obtenida, se establecieron dos apartados para dar respuesta a los objetivos. CONCLUSIONES: La SMP como concepto ha encontrado su espacio en el ámbito de la Salud Pública, y de la Psicología, siendo equiparable a términos como Bienestar o Flourish. Como constructo, Hedonía y Eudamonía se constituyen como sus principales componentes.

CONTEXTO: Definir a Saúde Mental Positiva (SMP) e conhecer a "etiologia da Saúde Mental" permanece difícil. Estudos para conceptualizar e operacionalizar a promoção da Saúde Mental têm aumentado exponencialmente, dando origem a múltiplos conceitos relacionados, tais como bem-estar psicológico, “flourish” ou SMP. OBJETIVO(S): Analisar a SMP como um conceito para descrever sua evolução histórica. (2) Analisar a SMP como construto, explorando em paralelo dimensões e fatores propostos nos diversos modelos teóricos existentes. MÉTODOS: Revisão da literatura por meio de busca nas bases de dados Web of Science, PubMed, Scielo, PsycINFO e Psicodoc, cujos critérios de inclusão foram: ser escrito em inglês, espanhol ou português, disponível em texto integral e cujo assunto trata da SMP. Os termos da pesquisa foram: Saúde Mental Positiva, Promoção da Saúde Mental, Bem-estar, Bem-estar Psicológico, Bem-estar Emocional e Flourish. RESULTADOS: Foram obtidos um total de 128 artigos que responderam aos objetivos, embora 20 tenham sido utilizados para a realização deste trabalho. Após a análise categorial das informações obtidas, foram estabelecidas duas secções para responder aos objetivos. CONCLUSÕES: A SMP como conceito tem encontrado seu lugar no campo da Saúde Pública e Psicologia, sendo comparável a termos como Bem-estar ou Flourish. Como construto, Hedonía e Eudamonía são seus principais componentes.

BACKGROUND:Defining Positive Mental Health (PMH) and knowing the "etiology of Mental Health" remains difficult. Studies to conceptualize and operationalize the positive aspect of Mental Health have increased exponentially, giving rise to multiple related concepts such as Psychological Wellbeing, Flourishing or PMH. AIM: To analyze the PMH as a concept, to describe its historical evolution. (2) To analyze the PMH as a construct, exploring in parallel its dimensions and factors proposed in the various existing theoretical models. METHODS: Literature review by means of search in the Web of Science, PubMed, Scielo, PsycINFO and Psicodoc databases,whose inclusion criteria were: to be written in English, Spanish or Portuguese, available in full-text and whose subject matter deals with the SMP.The search terms were: Positive Mental Health, Mental Health Promotion, Well-being, Psychological Well-being, Emotional Well-being and Flourish. RESULTS A total of 128 articles were obtained that gave answer to the objectives, although 20 were finally used for the accomplishment of this work. After the categorial analysis of the information obtained, two sections were established to respond to the objectives. CONCLUSIONS: The PMH as a concept has found its place in the field of Public Health, and Psychology, being comparable to terms such as Well-Being or Flourish. As a construct, Hedonia and Eudamonia constitute themselves as its main components.

Teen Dating Violence, Sexism, and Resilience: A Multivariate Analysis.

The aim of this research was to know the factors associated with teen dating violence and victimization because violence in teenagers' relationships is increasing in recent years, constituting a serious social problem. For this purpose, we analyzed teen dating violence and explored the variables (sexist attitudes, personal adjustment, clinical maladjustment, and resilience) related to teen dating violence and victimization using multinomial logistic models. The sample was composed of 268 school teenagers aged 12 to 17 from the Basque Country (Spain). Results showed that sex, age, sexism, and self-esteem predicted teen dating violence and that sex and social problems predicted victimization. Associations between the wide range of variables and types of perpetration and victimization (verbal-emotional, relational, and physical) were also explored. These results could be taken into consideration for future prevention programs.

Psychological Symptoms in Health Professionals in Spain After the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Following the declaration of the COVID-19 outbreak as a global pandemic in March 2020, a state of alarm was decreed in Spain. In this situation, healthcare workers experienced high levels of stress, anxiety and depression due to the heavy workload and working conditions. Although Spain experienced a progressive decline in the number of COVID-19 cases until the last week of May (when a flattening of the case curve was achieved) and the work overload among health workers was substantially reduced, several studies have shown that this work overload is associated with the later emergence of psychological symptoms induced by stress. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the levels of stress, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress and compassionate fatigue in health professionals. The sample consisted of 973 health professionals 16.5% men, 82.9% women, and one non-binary person. The data were collected through an online questionnaire sent to the participants by e-mail. DASS-21 was used to measure anxiety, stress and depression, PCL-C to measure post-traumatic stress and ProQOL -vIV to measure compassion fatigue. In addition, other descriptive variables that could be related to these levels of psychological symptomatology were evaluated. The results reveal that after the work overload experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare workers report psychological symptoms, post-traumatic stress and compassion fatigue. It is therefore recommended that these professionals be provided with psychological help in order to reduce the emotional impact of COVID-19, and consequently improve their mental health.

Variables Related to Victimization and Perpetration of Dating Violence in Adolescents in Residential Care Settings.

Violence in dating relationships constitutes a serious problem, thus, the study of related factors could help to better understand this violence and intervene in it. This study had three goals: (1) To analyze the prevalence of dating violence in adolescents under residential care settings according to sex and age; (2) to explore the relationships between victimization and perpetration in adolescents' dating violence, sexist attitudes and clinical variables; and (3) to identify variables associated to adolescents' dating violence (victimization and perpetration). The sample comprised 271 adolescents (54.6% boys and 45.4% girls), aged between 12 and 17 years (M = 15.23, SD = 1.60). The victimization (R2 = .17, p <.001) and perpetration (R2 = .20. p < .001) results showed prevalence rates higher than those of previous studies. Sex was not a differentiating factor for perpetration of dating violence, but age was: the older they were, the higher the perpetration rate. In the case of victimization, an interaction between sex and age was found. Results showed that age, sex, hostile sexism and depression were variables associated to victimization whereas age, hostile sexism and depression were associated to perpetration of dating violence.

Relationship between Parental Socialization, Emotional Symptoms, and Academic Performance during Adolescence: The Influence of Parents' and Teenagers' Gender.

Scientific interest in students' emotional and psychosocial experiences has been increasing in the last years due to their influence on students' learning processes and academic performance. The present manuscript tries to go further in the study of the relationship between perceived parenting socialization and academic performance by analyzing not only their direct effects, but also by testing their indirect influence through other variables such as students' psychological and school maladjustment, especially focusing on gender differences (both of students and parents). The sample comprised 823 students (416 males and 407 females) from the Basque Country (Spain), with ages ranging between 12 and 16 years (M = 13.7, SD = 1.2). Students completed a sociodemographic data form, the PARQ-Control questionnaire, and the BASC-S3 test. Teachers answered an ad hoc question on each student's academic performance. The data showed that, both for males and females, the same structure of parent-teenager relationship predicted teenagers' academic performance, via psychological and school maladjustment. However, the intensity of the relationship between parental acceptance and teenagers' results in all the other factors differed depending on teenagers' gender. Fathers' influence was greater in males, and mothers' influence was higher in females. This study is considered a starting point for a theoretical model predicting academic performance and psychological and school maladjustment among teenagers.

Child and Adolescent Depression: A Review of Theories, Evaluation Instruments, Prevention Programs, and Treatments.

Depression is the principal cause of illness and disability in the world. Studies charting the prevalence of depression among children and adolescents report high percentages of youngsters in both groups with depressive symptoms. This review analyzes the construct and explanatory theories of depression and offers a succinct overview of the main evaluation instruments used to measure this disorder in children and adolescents, as well as the prevention programs developed for the school environment and the different types of clinical treatment provided. The analysis reveals that in mental classifications, the child depression construct is no different from the adult one, and that multiple explanatory theories must be taken into account in order to arrive at a full understanding of depression. Consequently, both treatment and prevention should also be multifactorial in nature. Although universal programs may be more appropriate due to their broad scope of application, the results are inconclusive and fail to demonstrate any solid long-term efficacy. In conclusion, we can state that: (1) There are biological factors (such as tryptophan-a building block for serotonin-depletion, for example) which strongly influence the appearance of depressive disorders; (2) Currently, negative interpersonal relations and relations with one's environment, coupled with social-cultural changes, may explain the increase observed in the prevalence of depression; (3) Many instruments can be used to evaluate depression, but it is necessary to continue to adapt tests for diagnosing the condition at an early age; (4) Prevention programs should be developed for and implemented at an early age; and (5) The majority of treatments are becoming increasingly rigorous and effective. Given that initial manifestations of depression may occur from a very early age, further and more in-depth research is required into the biological, psychological and social factors that, in an interrelated manner, may explain the appearance, development, and treatment of depression.

Evaluation of the effects of a childhood depression prevention program.

The study aimed to design and evaluate a program for the prevention of childhood depression ("Pozik-Bizi" [in English, "Live-Happily"]), comparing its effects with a socio-emotional intervention program based on cooperative play. The sample comprised 420 students aged 7 to 10 years from the Basque Country, 51.9% were randomly assigned to the experimental condition ("Pozik-Bizi") program and 48.1% to the control group ("Play program"). Using a pretest-posttest repeated measures experimental design, 7 evaluation instruments were administered. When comparing the two interventions, it was confirmed that those who participated in the "Pozik-Bizi" program significantly decreased their level of clinical maladjustment, school maladjustment, emotional, and behavioral problems, and they increased positive behaviors that inhibit depression. However, the cooperative play program improved self-concept and social skills significantly more than the "Pozik-Bizi" program. The effect size in all the variables was small. The discussion analyzes the effectiveness of specific programs of prevention of childhood depression versus global programs of social-emotional development. This work provides a program to prevent childhood depression that has been shown to be effective in the reduction of clinical variables. In addition, this study confirms the positive potential of programs of cooperative play, to increase self-concept and social skills.

Variables related to victimization and perpetration of dating violence in adolescents in residential care settings

Violence in dating relationships constitutes a serious problem, thus, the study of related factors could help to better understand this violence and intervene in it. This study had three goals: (1) To analyze the prevalence of dating violence in adolescents under residential care settings according to sex and age; (2) to explore the relationships between victimization and perpetration in adolescents' dating violence, sexist attitudes and clinical variables; and (3) to identify variables associated to adolescents' dating violence (victimization and perpetration). The sample comprised 271 adolescents (54.6% boys and 45.4% girls), aged between 12 and 17 years (M = 15.23, SD = 1.60). The victimization (R2 = .17, p <.001) and perpetration (R2 = .20. p < .001) results showed prevalence rates higher than those of previous studies. Sex was not a differentiating factor for perpetration of dating violence, but age was: the older they were, the higher the perpetration rate. In the case of victimization, an interaction between sex and age was found. Results showed that age, sex, hostile sexism and depression were variables associated to victimization whereas age, hostile sexism and depression were associated to perpetration of dating violence

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Mild and severe childhood depression: differences and implications for prevention programs in the school setting.

PURPOSE: The study had two goals as follows: 1) to identify the prevalence of children with mild and severe depression (MD and SD), exploring sex differences; and 2) to determine possible significant differences in adaptive and clinical variables between children with different levels of depression (absence of depression, MD, and SD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a sample of 420 participants aged 7-10 years (53.3% boys) enrolled in third and fourth grade of primary education, from schools in the Basque Country (Spain). The Children's Depression Scale (CDS, self-assessment) was administered as well as six more assessment instruments. RESULTS: It was found that 84.2% of children had no depression, 10% had MD, and 5.8% had SD. Compared with children with depressive symptoms, participants without depression had significantly: 1) lower levels of maladjustment, stress, emotional symptoms, internalizing problems, and behavioral problems; and 2) higher levels of personal adjustment, resilience, social skills, and self-concept. In addition, children with MD had significantly lower levels of clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms, and stress than children with SD. However, no differences were found in school maladjustment, internalizing problems, behavioral problems, personal adjustment, resilience, social skills, and self-concept between children with MD and SD. CONCLUSION: The discussion emphasizes the importance of identifying children with MD and implementing universal prevention programs from an early age.

Perceived parenting and adolescents' adjustment.

Adolescence is an important developmental period that is characterised by heightened problems of adjustment. The aim of this study is to analyse adolescents' adjustment, and to explore the typologies and dimensions of parenting, and thus to determine the relationships between these factors. The sample comprised 1285 adolescent students aged 12 to 16 from the Basque Country (Spain). The students filled out the self-report of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, (PARQ/Control). Differences by age were found in the adolescents' school maladjustment and parenting style perception. Moreover, perceptions of little parental warmth were related to higher levels of clinical and school maladjustment, and the lower the parental control, the greater the clinical maladjustment. Finally, the results obtained revealed that the interaction between the mothers' and fathers' parenting styles was significant only for clinical maladjustment; those students with neglectful mothers and authoritative fathers presented the highest level of clinical maladjustment, followed by other combinations of neglectful mothers. Furthermore, the students from neglectful and authoritarian families presented the highest levels of school maladjustment, without differences between neglectful and authoritarian or between indulgent and authoritative families.

Perceived parenting and adolescents' adjustment

Abstract Adolescence is an important developmental period that is characterised by heightened problems of adjustment. The aim of this study is to analyse adolescents' adjustment, and to explore the typologies and dimensions of parenting, and thus to determine the relationships between these factors. The sample comprised 1285 adolescent students aged 12 to 16 from the Basque Country (Spain). The students filled out the self-report of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, (PARQ/Control). Differences by age were found in the adolescents' school maladjustment and parenting style perception. Moreover, perceptions of little parental warmth were related to higher levels of clinical and school maladjustment, and the lower the parental control, the greater the clinical maladjustment. Finally, the results obtained revealed that the interaction between the mothers' and fathers' parenting styles was significant only for clinical maladjustment; those students with neglectful mothers and authoritative fathers presented the highest level of clinical maladjustment, followed by other combinations of neglectful mothers. Furthermore, the students from neglectful and authoritarian families presented the highest levels of school maladjustment, without differences between neglectful and authoritarian or between indulgent and authoritative families.

Childhood Depression: Relation to Adaptive, Clinical and Predictor Variables.

The study had two goals: (1) to explore the relations between self-assessed childhood depression and other adaptive and clinical variables (2) to identify predictor variables of childhood depression. Participants were 420 students aged 7-10 years old (53.3% boys, 46.7% girls). Results revealed: (1) positive correlations between depression and clinical maladjustment, school maladjustment, emotional symptoms, internalizing and externalizing problems, problem behaviors, emotional reactivity, and childhood stress; and (2) negative correlations between depression and personal adaptation, global self-concept, social skills, and resilience (sense of competence and affiliation). Linear regression analysis including the global dimensions revealed 4 predictors of childhood depression that explained 50.6% of the variance: high clinical maladjustment, low global self-concept, high level of stress, and poor social skills. However, upon introducing the sub-dimensions, 9 predictor variables emerged that explained 56.4% of the variance: many internalizing problems, low family self-concept, high anxiety, low responsibility, low personal self-assessment, high social stress, few aggressive behaviors toward peers, many health/psychosomatic problems, and external locus of control. The discussion addresses the importance of implementing prevention programs for childhood depression at early ages.