High-resolution single-particle cryo-EM of samples vitrified in boiling nitro-gen.

Based on work by Dubochet and others in the 1980s and 1990s, samples for single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) have been vitrified using ethane, propane or ethane/propane mixtures. These liquid cryogens have a large difference between their melting and boiling temperatures and so can absorb substantial heat without formation of an insulating vapor layer adjacent to a cooling sample. However, ethane and propane are flammable, they must be liquified in liquid nitro-gen immediately before cryo-EM sample preparation, and cryocooled samples must be transferred to liquid nitro-gen for storage, complicating workflows and increasing the chance of sample damage during handling. Experiments over the last 15 years have shown that cooling rates required to vitrify pure water are only ∼250 000 K s-1, at the low end of earlier estimates, and that the dominant factor that has limited cooling rates of small samples in liquid nitro-gen is sample precooling in cold gas present above the liquid cryogen surface, not the Leidenfrost effect. Using an automated cryocooling instrument developed for cryocrystallography that combines high plunge speeds with efficient removal of cold gas, we show that single-particle cryo-EM samples on commercial grids can be routinely vitrified using only boiling nitro-gen and obtain apoferritin datasets and refined structures with 2.65 Šresolution. The use of liquid nitro-gen as the primary coolant may allow manual and automated workflows to be simplified and may reduce sample stresses that contribute to beam-induced motion.

Integrated sample-handling and mounting system for fixed-target serial synchrotron crystallography.

Serial synchrotron crystallography (SSX) is enabling the efficient use of small crystals for structure-function studies of biomolecules and for drug discovery. An integrated SSX system has been developed comprising ultralow background-scatter sample holders suitable for room and cryogenic temperature crystallographic data collection, a sample-loading station and a humid `gloveless' glovebox. The sample holders incorporate thin-film supports with a variety of designs optimized for different crystal-loading challenges. These holders facilitate the dispersion of crystals and the removal of excess liquid, can be cooled at extremely high rates, generate little background scatter, allow data collection over >90° of oscillation without obstruction or the risk of generating saturating Bragg peaks, are compatible with existing infrastructure for high-throughput cryocrystallography and are reusable. The sample-loading station allows sample preparation and loading onto the support film, the application of time-varying suction for optimal removal of excess liquid, crystal repositioning and cryoprotection, and the application of sealing films for room-temperature data collection, all in a controlled-humidity environment. The humid glovebox allows microscope observation of the sample-loading station and crystallization trays while maintaining near-saturating humidities that further minimize the risks of sample dehydration and damage, and maximize working times. This integrated system addresses common problems in obtaining properly dispersed, properly hydrated and isomorphous microcrystals for fixed-orientation and oscillation data collection. Its ease of use, flexibility and optimized performance make it attractive not just for SSX but also for single-crystal and few-crystal data collection. Fundamental concepts that are important in achieving desired crystal distributions on a sample holder via time-varying suction-induced liquid flows are also discussed.

High density oilfield wastewater disposal causes deeper, stronger, and more persistent earthquakes.

Oilfield wastewater disposal causes fluid pressure transients that induce earthquakes. Here we show that, in addition to pressure transients related to pumping, there are pressure transients caused by density differences between the wastewater and host rock fluids. In northern Oklahoma, this effect caused earthquakes to migrate downward at ~0.5 km per year during a period of high-rate injections. Following substantial injection rate reductions, the downward earthquake migration rate slowed to ~0.1 km per year. Our model of this scenario shows that the density-driven pressure front migrates downward at comparable rates. This effect may locally increase fluid pressure below injection wells for 10+ years after substantial injection rate reductions. We also show that in north-central Oklahoma the relative proportion of high-magnitude earthquakes increases at 8+ km depth. Thus, our study implies that, following injection rate reductions, the frequency of high-magnitude earthquakes may decay more slowly than the overall earthquake rate.