Small-scale on-site treatment of fecal matter: comparison of treatments for resource recovery and sanitization.

On-site small-scale sanitation is common in rural areas and areas without infrastructure, but the treatment of the collected fecal matter can be inefficient and is seldom directed to resource recovery. The aim of this study was to compare low-technology solutions such as composting and lactic acid fermentation (LAF) followed by vermicomposting in terms of treatment efficiency, potential human and environmental risks, and stabilization of the material for reuse in agriculture. A specific and novel focus of the study was the fate of native pharmaceutical compounds in the fecal matter. Composting, with and without the addition of biochar, was monitored by temperature and CO2 production and compared with LAF. All treatments were run at three different ambient temperatures (7, 20, and 38°C) and followed by vermicomposting at room temperature. Materials resulting from composting and LAF were analyzed for fecal indicators, physicochemical characteristics, and residues of ten commonly used pharmaceuticals and compared to the initial substrate. Vermicomposting was used as secondary treatment and assessed by enumeration of Escherichia coli, worm density, and physicochemical characteristics. Composting at 38°C induced the highest microbial activity and resulted in better stability of the treated material, higher N content, lower numbers of fecal indicators, and less pharmaceutical compounds as compared to LAF. Even though analysis of pH after LAF suggested incomplete fermentation, E. coli cell numbers were significantly lower in all LAF treatments compared to composting at 7°C, and some of the anionic pharmaceutical compounds were detected in lower concentrations. The addition of approximately 5 vol % biochar to the composting did not yield significant differences in measured parameters. Vermicomposting further stabilized the material, and the treatments previously composted at 7°C and 20°C had the highest worm density. These results suggest that in small-scale decentralized sanitary facilities, the ambient temperatures can significantly influence the treatment and the options for safe reuse of the material.

A comparison of various bulking materials as a supporting matrix in composting blackwater solids from vacuum toilets.

This study discusses the influence of six bulking materials (peat, bark, oat husks, sawdust, food waste, and wheat bran) on the composting of blackwater solids (feces, urine and toilet paper) from low flush vacuum toilets (0.8 L/flush). The focus was on faecal indicator reduction, nutrient recycling, and carbon dioxide and methane emissions. In a composting experiment lasting 60 days, bulking materials were combined and mixed with blackwater solids, composted without stirring and with controlled aeration in a bench scale experiment. The bulking materials combination of oat husks, wheat bran and bark and of oat husks and wheat bran composted with blackwater solids showed the best results in terms of faecal indicator reduction (2.8 log10 reduction of Escherichia coli and 3.2 log10 reduction of faecal streptococci, respectively). Oat husks, bark and wheat bran combination had the smallest nutrient losses of 7.5% total nitrogen, 3.8% total phosphorus and 28% total potassium, while the highest accumulation in total phosphorus was 76.4% occurred in the mixture with oat husks and wheat bran. Peat and food waste improved the sorption of ammonia. The highest methane emissions (average 15.4%) were detected after 28 days of composting in the mixture with bran and food waste. Methane and carbon dioxide levels decreased in all the mixtures towards the end of composting indicating high organic matter degradation. Our findings show that a variety of natural and inexpensive materials can be used and adapted when composing blackwater in remote and sensitive areas.

Particle removal in a novel sequential mechanical filter system loaded with blackwater.

A novel sequential mechanical filter system was developed as an alternative primary treatment method for onsite wastewater treatment. The filter combines traditional screening with a novel type of counter-flow filter using wood-shavings as a biodegradable filter matrix. This study tested the system in a batch loading regime simulating high frequency toilet flushing using blackwater from a student dormitory. The filter removed 78-85% of suspended solids, 60-80% of chemical oxygen demand, and 42-57% of total-P in blackwater, giving a retentate with a dry matter content of 13-20%. Data analysis clearly indicated a tendency towards higher removal performance with high inlet concentrations, hence, the system seems to be most applicable to blackwater or other types of wastewater with a high content of suspended solids.

Load and distribution of organic matter and nutrients in a separated household wastewater stream.

Wastewater from a source-separated sanitation system connected to 24 residential flats was analysed for the content of organic matter and nutrients and other key parameters for microbiological processes used in the treatment and reuse of wastewater. Black water (BW) was the major contributor to the total load of organic matter and nutrients in the wastewater, accounting for 69% of chemical oxygen demand (COD), 83% of total nitrogen (N) and 87% of phosphorus (P). With a low COD/N ratio and high content of free ammonia, treating BW alone is a challenge in traditional biological nitrogen removal approaches. However, its high nitrogen concentration (1.4-1.7 g L(-1)) open up for nutrient reuse as well as for novel, more energy efficient N-removal technologies. Grey water (GW) contained low amounts of nutrients relative to organic matter, and this may limit biological treatment processes under certain conditions. GW contains a higher proportion of soluble, readily degradable organic substances compared with BW, which facilitates simple, decentralized treatment approaches. The concentration of organic matter and nutrients varied considerably between our study and other studies, which could be related to different toilet flushing volumes and water use habits. The daily load per capita, on the other hand, was found to be in line with most of the reported studies.

Removal of particles in organic filters in experimental treatment systems for domestic wastewater and black water.

This study assesses the total suspended solids (TSS) retention capacity of different organic filter media for two potential applications: (i) a polishing unit for package treatment plants and (ii) a pretreatment for blackwater from low-flushing toilets. The results showed that the peat filter media used can be significantly improved in terms of structural stability and TSS removal capacity by mixing it with sawdust. Most of the TSS accumulated in the upper part of the filter material, and filter thickness exceeding 15 cm had no statistically significant effect (P < 0.1) on the TSS treatment performance. The experimental system reached a TSS reduction of 60-70% for blackwater and 80-90% for simulated effluent peaks from a package treatment plant. The main challenge of a full-scale application of an organic filter is the issue of clogging, especially when treating concentrated blackwater. However, this work indicates that a clogged filter media can be regenerated by mixing the uppermost filter layer without significant loss of filter performance regarding TSS. More research is needed to develop an appropriate mechanical unit for automatic filter media regeneration.

Phosphorous sorption by Filtralite P--small scale box experiment.

Phosphorus (P) sorption of light weight aggregate, Filtralite P has been examined through a box experiment which imitates a horizontal subsurface flow wetland system. The results showed that after the P breakthrough, the outlet P concentration increased with time according to the amount of P applied. Small scale boxes with a high inlet P concentration (15 ppm) and high loading rate (5-2.5 L d(-1)) reached 90% saturation level relatively quickly (after about 150 days of operation), while the boxes with low hydraulic loading rate (1.25 L day(-1)) were 70-90% saturated after 18 months of operation. The total P removal was dependent on pH, Ca, and the inlet P concentrations, but was independent of the hydraulic loading rate. Extraction of total P from the saturated filter material showed that the sorbed P accumulated within the inlet section of the box and decreased gradually towards the outlet as well as towards the bottom layer. Even after large amounts of Ca had leached out of the system, Filtralite P still had a very high P removal capacity. After resting periods the P sorption capacity of the material was regenerated, the P concentration in the effluent decreased by 22-53%.

High performance constructed wetlands for cold climates.

In 1991, the first subsurface flow constructed wetland for treatment of domestic wastewater was built in Norway. Today, this method is rapidly becoming a popular method for wastewater treatment in rural Norway. This is due to excellent performance even during winter and low maintenance. The systems can be constructed regardless of site conditions. The Norwegian concept for small constructed wetlands is based on the use of a septic tank followed by an aerobic vertical down-flow biofilter succeeded by a subsurface horizontal-flow constructed wetland. The aerobic biofilter, prior to the subsurface flow stage, is essential to remove BOD and achieve nitrification in a climate where the plants are dormant during the cold season. When designed according to present guidelines a consistent P-removal of > 90% can be expected for 15 years using natural iron or calcium rich sand or a new manufactured lightweight aggregate with P-sorption capacities, which exceeds most natural media. When the media is saturated with P it can be used as soil conditioner and P-fertilizer. Nitrogen removal in the range of 40-60% is achieved. Removal of indicator bacteria is high and < 1000 thermotolerant coliforms/100 ml is normally achieved.

Salinity effect on the characteristics of saturated horizontal flow in small boxes containing Filtralite-P.

Constructed wetlands are ecological systems that have proven their efficiency in treating wastewater and reducing pollutants of concern in both warm and cold climate. Oversizing these systems is common in the design process due to the inadequate knowledge about water movement in the porous media used. This study investigates the saturated horizontal flow pattern in a lightweight aggregates especially made for use in constructed wetlands termed Filtralite P using computer tomography and a chloride tracer under different hydraulic loading rates and inlet concentrations in a laboratory box experiment. The salt concentrations showed a major effect on the retention time and the flow by enhancing short-circuiting, preferential flow pattern. A hydraulic loading rate of 25 cm day(-1) is suggested as the safest loading rate with Filtralite P under different ranges of wastewater concentrations with a possibility to use a loading rate of 50 cm day(-1) only with municipal wastewater and not the industrial wastewater. The computer tomography images indicated that flow was going first to the bottom and then fluidise upward with a sharp boundary between the incoming and ambient water.