Critical analysis of the term sport by José María Cagigal / Análisis crítico del término deporte de José María Cagigal

The intellectual heritage of modernity has not contributed to the development of philosophical thinking about sport. However, there have been personalities who have interpreted sport from a deeper perspective than what common sense would suggest. One of them was José María Cagigal, pedagogue and philosopher representing the international Olympic movement and Physical Education in Spain. This essay analysed the ideas of this thinker in relation to his concept of sport. In this way, it was possible to identify an interpretation aimed at extending cultural and epistemological boundaries. This promoted meaningwith ambiguity and relativity between the contemporary distinction of physical activity, physical exercise, play and sport. Nevertheless, it is appreciated that Cagigal's thinking has the potential to avoid reductionisms around universal definitions of sporting activity that can be established (AU)

La herencia intelectualdela modernidad no ha contribuidoa que el pensamiento filosófico del deporte haya podidoser muy desarrollado. Sin embargo, han existidopersonalidades que haninterpretadoel deporte desde una mirada más profunda que laque propiciabael sentido común. Una de ellas fue la de José María Cagigal, pedagogo y filósofo representante del movimiento olímpico internacional y de la Educación Física en España. Este ensayo analizó las ideas de aquel pensador en torno a su concepto de deporte. De este modo, se logró identificar una interpretación orientada a ampliar las fronteras culturales y epistemológicas. Estopromovió significados con ambigüedad y relatividad entre la distinción contemporánea de actividad física, ejercicio físico, juego y deporte. No obstante, se aprecia que el pensamiento de Cagigal tiene potencial para evitar reduccionismos en torno a las definiciones universales que se puedan establecer de la actividad deportiva (AU)

The evolution of lithium therapy.

The evolution of lithium therapy for the treatment of mania and depression, from its discovery to the present day, is described. Early problems with toxicity have been overcome and lithium is now established as a safe medication, provided serum levels are monitored. The mechanism of action of lithium is not yet known, but biochemical models are beginning to be put forward. Lower doses of lithium than were previously used are now recommended. Treatment with intermittent doses of lithium (every second day) seems to reduce side effects, while maintaining clinical efficacy. Lithium has recently been used in combination with other medications. Augmentation of unsuccessful antidepressant treatment with lithium may produce an antidepressant effect within a short time. Withdrawal from lithium therapy usually results in a relapse. Lithium treatment is also used outside psychiatry. Other potential clinical applications for lithium therapy are discussed.

[Lithium and sensory analysis]. / Lithium et analyse sensorielle.

Despite our extensive knowledge regarding the biochemical and physiological actions of lithium, we have so far been unsuccessful in linking this information to the clinical actions of lithium in a unified model. It may be that a psychological/behavioural approach may allow us to achieve this objective. The present paper presents an outline of some studies on the behavioural actions of lithium in rats and mice and suggests how the data from such work can lead to a model of lithium action and of manic-depressive disorder couched in terms of information-processing mechanisms. Recent work in manic-depressive patients, using a signal detection task, is also described: the results are broadly confirmatory of the information-processing model of lithium effects.

Different treatment modalities for recurrent bipolar affective disorders: an integrative approach.

Pharmacological, behavioural and psychotherapeutic procedures for the acute and prophylactic treatment of mania and depression are considered in outline. It is argued that the manic state is the primary disorder, with depression being a secondary homeostatic response to mania: the prophylaxis of depression thus depends upon the successful long-term control of mania. Suggestions are made regarding ways in which nonpharmacological techniques may be developed to achieve the prophylactic effectiveness against recurrent bipolar affective disorders which is, at the present time, to be found only among pharmacological treatment procedures.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: VI. Evaluation of one-trial modification of exploration as a basis for psychoactive drug classification.

Findings obtained using a one-trial modification of exploration procedure are reviewed and the suitability of the test as a device for screening and classifying psychoactive drugs is considered. It is concluded that the test has value from a theoretical point of view, in relation to a model of affective disorders based upon the concept of stimulus analysis, but that there are several practical difficulties which limit the test's usefulness as an adjunct to a basic screening programme for new drugs.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: IV. The experimental discrimination of acute and prophylactic antidepressants.

Lithium, a drug used in the prophylactic control of recurrent depression, and tranylcypromine, a monoamine oxidase inhibiting agent used acutely to treat ongoing depressive episodes, are examined in a behavioural test designed to give information about drug effects upon stimulus analysis and motor activity, with appropriate adjustments being made for state dependence and memory effects. Neither drug has marked effects on motor activity according to the results of the test, but whereas lithium suppresses stimulus analysis, tranylcypromine appears to stimulate that function. The results are discussed in the context of a model of affective disorders based on stimulus analysis dysfunction.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: I. The theoretical background and a model of affective disorders.

After a brief discussion of levels of explanation in psychopharmacology, evidence is reviewed which suggests that the lithium ion may produce behavioural effects by an action on information processing mechanisms. The clinical implications of such a view are noted. It is suggested that chlorpromazine may also affect stimulus analysis. A model of affective disorders, based upon the idea of stimulus analysis dysfunction, is then elaborated and suggestions are put forward concerning the relationships between different types of psychoactive drugs.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: II. The experimental distinction of stimulus processing and motor effects of drugs.

An experimental procedure is described which enables a distinction to be made between the effects of drugs on motor activity and stimulus analysis. The test is based upon the experimental modification of exploratory behaviour of rats. The psychological processes occurring in the test situation are discussed, and an experimental paradigm outlined which would enable drug effects to be evaluated on a number of psychological dimensions. The logic of the paradigm is illustrated with examples.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: III. Adjustment of behavioural measures for drug-induced memory effects and state dependence: the case of chlorpromazine.

Chlorpromazine is shown to have a suppressant effect upon stimulus analysis when given intraperitoneally as a 1 mg/kg dose to rats. The drug has no effects upon motor activity at this dose, but does impair short-term memory. These findings are based upon an examination of chlorpromazine in a newly-designed psychoactive drug classification test which allows adjustments to be made for drug-induced memory effects and for the influence of state dependence. The rationale for these adjustments to behavioural measures is presented in detail.

Psychoactive drugs and stimulus analysis: V. The experimental discrimination of tranquilizing and sedative drugs.

Chlordiazepoxide, a tranquilizing (anxiolytic) agent, is compared with phenobarbitone, a sedative with some anxiolytic properties, in a behavioural drug classification test. It is shown that in the case of chlordiazepoxide there is a marked inhibition of stimulus analysis but little effect upon motor activity; phenobarbitone produces some suppression of stimulus processing but has an even more marked suppressant effect on motor activity. However, phenobarbitone is also found to affect memory formation and when corrections are applied to the data to take account of this factor, the classification profile of phenobarbitone is greatly modified. The findings are discussed in the light of a model of affective disorders and psychoactive drug action based on dysfunctioning of stimulus analysis mechanisms.

[Anxiolytics and depression (author's transl)]. / Anxiolytiques et dépression.

After establishing the definition of an anxiolytic, the use of these drugs in the treatment of psychopathological states is examined. Whilst it is clear that the balance of evidence is against their use in depression unaccompanied by a significant level of anxiety, it is nevertheless the case that these drugs have an established place in the management of mixed anxiety-depression. This leads to a number of logical possibilities concerning the mode of action of anxiolytics and the relationships between depression and anxiety: these possibilities are examined. Complementary uses of anxiolytics adjunctive to pharmacological and non-pharmacological techniques for treating depression are also considered.

The use of fish in studying the behavioural effects of lithium.

Lithium effects have been observed on various aspects of the behaviour of fish, and in particular upon social aggregation, aggression, visual and lateral line sensory perception, memory, and alcohol tolerance. The results of these studies are reviewed and the findings related to a model of lithium action based upon attenuation of sensory information processing.

The influence of alkali metal chlorides on environmentally-linked behavioural stereotypies in the rat.

In a series of three experiments using rats, the chlorides of lithium, rubidium and caesium were compared with sodium chloride in respect of their effects on behavioural stereotypy. Two apparatuses were used, a modified hold-board and an open field. Caesium was found to increase the occurrence of environmentally-linked behaviour in both types of apparatus. Lithium had effects in the opposite direction. Rubidium had effects like caesium in the modified hold-board test, but like lithium in the open field. The findings are discussed in terms of possible effects on central information processing mechanisms.

Social and psychological support adjunctive to lithium therapy: a critical review.

As lithium therapy becomes more and more widely used for the treatment and control of recurrent mania and depression, the question of whether or not therapeutic outcome may be enhanced by the provision of supportive psychotherapy or other adjunctive social measures has gained in importance. Reports of psychological and social support given to patients receiving lithium therapy are reviewed critically and the question is raised as to the economics of providing such non-pharmacological back-up as a routine concomitant of lithium therapy. Some consideration is given to the psychological mechanisms that are likely to be associated with lithium therapy procedures and that might be exploited by the psychotherapist.