Wastewater effluents cause microbial community shifts and change trophic status.

Widespread wastewater pollution is one of the greatest challenges threatening the sustainable management of rivers globally. Understanding microbial responses to gradients in environmental stressors, such as wastewater pollution, is crucial to identify thresholds of community change and to develop management strategies that protect ecosystem integrity. This study used multiple lines of empirical evidence, including a novel combination of microbial ecotoxicology methods in the laboratory and field to link pressure-stressor-response relationships. Specifically, community-based whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing and environmental genomics were integrated to determine real-world community interactions, shifts and functional change in response to wastewater pollution. Here we show that wastewater effluents above moderate (>10%) concentrations caused consistent significant shifts in bacterial community structure and function. These thresholds of community shifts were also linked to changes in the trophic state of receiving waters in terms of nutrient concentrations. Differences in the community responses along the effluent concentration gradient were primarily driven by two globally relevant bacterial indicator taxa, namely Malikia spp. (Burkholderiales) and hgcI_clade (Frankiales). Species replacement occurred above moderate effluent concentrations with abundances of Malikia spp. increasing, while abundances of hgcI_clade decreased. The responses of Malikia spp. and hgcI_clade matched gene patterns associated with globally important nitrogen cycling pathways, such as denitrification and nitrogen fixation, which linked the core individual taxa to putative function and ecosystem processes, rarely achieved in previous studies. This study has identified potential indicators of change in trophic status and the functional consequences of wastewater pollution. These findings have immediate implications for both the management of environmental stressors and protection of aquatic ecosystems.

Making seawalls multifunctional: The positive effects of seeded bivalves and habitat structure on species diversity and filtration rates.

The marine environment is being increasingly modified by the construction of artificial structures, the impacts of which may be mitigated through eco-engineering. To date, eco-engineering has predominantly aimed to increase biodiversity, but enhancing other ecological functions is arguably of equal importance for artificial structures. Here, we manipulated complexity through habitat structure (flat, and 2.5 cm, 5 cm deep vertical and 5 cm deep horizontal crevices) and seeding with the native oyster (Saccostrea glomerata, unseeded and seeded) on concrete tiles (0.25 m × 0.25 m) affixed to seawalls to investigate whether complexity (both orientation and depth of crevices) influences particle removal rates by suspension feeders and colonisation by different functional groups, and whether there are any ecological trade-offs between these functions. After 12 months, complex seeded tiles generally supported a greater abundance of suspension feeding taxa and had higher particle removal rates than flat tiles or unseeded tiles. The richness and diversity of taxa also increased with complexity. The effect of seeding was, however, generally weaker on tiles with complex habitat structure. However, the orientation of habitat complexity and the depth of the crevices did not influence particle removal rates or colonising taxa. Colonisation by non-native taxa was low compared to total taxa richness. We did not detect negative ecological trade-offs between increased particle removal rates and diversity and abundance of key functional groups. Our results suggest that the addition of complexity to marine artificial structures could potentially be used to enhance both biodiversity and particle removal rates. Consequently, complexity should be incorporated into future eco-engineering projects to provide a range of ecological functions in urbanised estuaries.

Authenticity and the Potability of Coconut Water - a Critical Review.

BACKGROUND: The content of the endosperm of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) contains "coconut water". This practically sterile liquid which is prized for its delicate, albeit labile, flavor when fresh, has had a recent dramatic increase in global demand. The organoleptic superiority of water from young coconuts means that degree of maturity at harvesting is the most influential factor in yield and composition. OBJECTIVE: To provide a guide to establishing the authenticity and the potability of samples of coconut water. METHOD: Review and evaluate the literature on the factors that determine the composition and stability of coconut water. RESULTS: Data is presented on the variances in natural composition, maturity, processing-induced compositional changes, adulterations, product recalls, classical and instrumental methods of analysis and on the available composition standards of coconut water. CONCLUSIONS: Advice is provided for official food analysts, and others, on prudent approaches as how to ascertain the authenticity and potability, or otherwise, of coconut water samples.

A novel real-world ecotoxicological dataset of pelagic microbial community responses to wastewater.

Real-world observational datasets that record and quantify pressure-stressor-response linkages between effluent discharges and natural aquatic systems are rare. With global wastewater volumes increasing at unprecedented rates, it is urgent that the present dataset is available to provide the necessary information about microbial community structure and functioning. Field studies were performed at two time-points in the Austral summer. Single-species and microbial community whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing was performed at a complete range of effluent concentrations and two salinities, with accompanying environmental data to provide new insights into nutrient and organic matter cycling, and to identify ecotoxicological tipping points. The two salinity regimes were chosen to investigate future scenarios based on a predicted salinity increase at the study site, typical of coastal regions with rising sea levels globally. Flow cytometry, amplicon sequencing of 16S and 18S rRNA genes and micro-fluidic quantitative polymerase-chain reactions (MFQPCR) were used to determine chlorophyll-a and total bacterial cell numbers and size, as well as taxonomic and functional diversity of pelagic microbial communities. This strong pilot dataset could be replicated in other regions globally and would be of high value to scientists and engineers to support the next advances in microbial ecotoxicology, environmental biomonitoring and estuarine water quality modelling.

After decades of stressor research in urban estuarine ecosystems the focus is still on single stressors: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis.

Natural systems are threatened by a variety of anthropogenic stressors and so understanding the interactive threats posed by multiple stressors is essential. In this study we focused on urban stressors that are ubiquitous to urban estuarine systems worldwide: elevated nutrients, toxic chemical contaminants, built infrastructure and non-indigenous species (NIS). We investigated structural (abundance, diversity and species richness) and functional endpoints (productivity, primary production (chlorophyll-a) and metabolism) commonly used to determine responses to these selected stressors. Through a systematic review of global literature, we found 579 studies of our selected stressors; 93% measured responses to a single stressor, with few assessing the effects of multiple stressors (7%). Structural endpoints were commonly used to measure the effects of stressors (49% of the total 579 studies). Whereas, functional endpoints were rarely assessed alone (10%) but rather in combination with structural endpoints (41%). Elevated nutrients followed by NIS were the most studied single stressors (43% and 16% of the 541 single stressor studies), while elevated nutrients and toxic contaminants were overwhelmingly the most common stressor combination (79% of the 38 multiple stressor studies); with NIS and built infrastructure representing major gaps in multi-stressor research. In the meta-analysis, structural endpoints tended to decrease, while functional endpoints increased and/or decreased in response to different types of organisms or groups. We predicted an antagonistic effect of elevated nutrients and toxic contaminants based on the opposing enriching versus toxic effects of this stressor combination. Of note, biodiversity was the only endpoint that revealed such an antagonistic response. Our results highlight the continuing paucity of multiple stressor studies and provide evidence for opposing patterns in the responses to single and interacting stressors depending on the measured endpoint. The latter is of significant consequence to understanding relevant impacts of stressors in coastal monitoring and management.

Gender and cultural bias in student evaluations: Why representation matters.

Gendered and racial inequalities persist in even the most progressive of workplaces. There is increasing evidence to suggest that all aspects of employment, from hiring to performance evaluation to promotion, are affected by gender and cultural background. In higher education, bias in performance evaluation has been posited as one of the reasons why few women make it to the upper echelons of the academic hierarchy. With unprecedented access to institution-wide student survey data from a large public university in Australia, we investigated the role of conscious or unconscious bias in terms of gender and cultural background. We found potential bias against women and teachers with non-English speaking backgrounds. Our findings suggest that bias may decrease with better representation of minority groups in the university workforce. Our findings have implications for society beyond the academy, as over 40% of the Australian population now go to university, and graduates may carry these biases with them into the workforce.

An ecological halo surrounding a large offshore artificial reef: Sediments, infauna, and fish foraging.

Artificial reefs are deployed in coastal systems to meet a range of social objectives and infrastructure requirements, such as recreational diving and fisheries enhancement. Such reefs are typically deployed on soft sediments and yet we know little of their effect on the biophysical characteristics of the surrounding benthos. This study investigated the composition of benthic infauna, sediment characteristics, and demersal fish foraging activity surrounding a large, steel, designed offshore artificial reef (OAR), measuring 12 m × 16 m x 12 m (height x length x width) and weighing approximately 42 tonnes. Using a gradient approach we established four transects with sediment sampling sites located 15, 30, 60, 120 and 240 m from the OAR. Taxon richness of infauna was lower close to the OAR (15, 30 m), and abundances of total infauna elevated at 15 m, driven largely by two families of polychaete (Onuphidae and Spionidae). Sediment characteristics (grain size, total organic carbon, metals) did not vary with distance from the OAR. Using unbaited videos we established that fish foraging activity on the soft sediments was enhanced close to the OAR (15 m), with a 5-10 fold increase in total foraging time that was largely accounted for by the activity of four benthivorous fish species (blue morwong Nemadactylus douglasii, the silver trevally Pseudocaranx georgianus, and goatfishes Upeneichthys vlamingii and U. lineatus). Fish foraging may cause changes in the composition of benthic infauna due to disturbance and selective predation. The effective benthic 'ecological halo' or 'footprint' of the OAR was 15 times the area of the actual reef. We demonstrate that a single large OAR can influence the surrounding benthic invertebrate and vertebrate communities, but that the effects are highly localised.

Artificial structures alter kelp functioning across an urbanised estuary.

Assessments of human impacts on natural habitats often focus on the abundance of component species, yet physiological and/or sub-lethal effects of stressors on functional attributes may be equally important to consider. Here we evaluated how artificial structures, an integral part of urbanisation in the marine environment, affects key functional properties of the habitat-forming kelp Ecklonia radiata. Given that stressors rarely occur in isolation, we assessed the effects of infrastructure across an urbanised estuary. Estuaries are ideal for studying how multiple anthropogenic and natural stressors influence potential impacts of infrastructure on habitat-forming species because these habitats usually face a wide range and levels of stressors. Here, we compared the abundance of habitat-forming macro-algae as well as the growth, erosion and photosynthetic activity of kelp in artificial and natural habitats across one of the largest urbanised estuaries in the word - Sydney Harbour. We predicted that effects of artificial structures on functional attributes of kelps would be stronger in the inner area of the Harbour, characterised by higher levels of human impacts and low flushing. Contrary to our predictions, we found that effects of infrastructure were consistent across the estuary, regardless of the ecological footprint caused by human activities or natural environmental gradients. When differences were observed between areas of the estuary, they mostly occurred independently of impacts of substrate type. Importantly, we found lower erosion rates of kelp on pilings than on reefs, likely resulting in lower production of detritus in estuaries where natural reefs are degraded or lost and pilings added. Such impacts have important implications for the connectivity among coastal habitats and secondary productivity in adjacent and remote habitats, which are highly dependent on the exportation of kelp detritus. Our study is the first to assess potential functional consequences of urbanisation through physiological and/or biomechanical effects on habitat-formers, an often overlooked mechanism of environmental impact on ecosystem functioning.

A novel framework for the use of remote sensing for monitoring catchments at continental scales.

Historical ecology can teach us valuable lessons on the processes and drivers of environmental change that can inform future monitoring priorities and management strategies. Environmental data to study environmental history, however, is often absent or of low quality. Even when studying changes occurring during the last few decades, monitoring efforts are scarce due to logistical and cost limitations, leaving large areas unassessed. The aim of this study is to evaluate the use of estuarine water colour as an indicator of historical environmental change in catchments. Water colour change was assessed in estuaries in Australia from 1987 to 2015 using satellite remote sensing. Random points were selected for each estuary and applied to the Australian Geoscience Data Cube (based on Landsat images) to obtain reflectance data through time. We propose a framework where (i) water colour is used to detect historical changes in catchments using generalised additive models, (ii) possible stressors and pressures driving those changes are evaluated using other available historical data, and (iii) lessons learned inform appropriate monitoring and management actions. This framework represents a novel approach to generate historical data for large-scale assessments of environmental change at catchment level, even in poorly studied areas.

Utilisation of anti-TNF levels in a UK tertiary IBD centre.

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain how anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) drug and anti-drug antibody levels testing is used in a 'real-world' setting to optimise inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) treatment. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of prospectively collected patient data. SETTING: Tertiary IBD centre in London, UK. PATIENTS: All patients at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals on anti-TNF who had levels measured between the start of testing in 2012 and October 2014. INTERVENTIONS: Anti-TNF drug and anti-drug antibody levels as part of routine monitoring. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Indication for measuring levels and changes in management made as a result of the levels. RESULTS: 330 infliximab levels were carried out in 199 patients and 143 adalimumab levels were carried out in 103 patients. Levels were primarily done in those with evidence of loss of response; 37% of infliximab levels and 52% of adalimumab levels. Levels resulted in a change in management in 26% of patients in infliximab group and 25% of patients in adalimumab group; however, this was greater in those with loss of response, 62% and 61% respectively. Anti-drug antibodies were detected in 7% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our early experience has demonstrated that measuring anti-TNF drug and anti-drug antibody levels can be useful in the optimisation of IBD management. In an increasing number of patients, particularly those with evidence of loss of response, it allows early decisions to be made regarding changing therapy. It also offers the potential for significant cost-saving by preventing pointless dose escalation in the context of therapeutic levels or when high-level anti-drug antibodies are present.

Uncovering hidden heterogeneity: Geo-statistical models illuminate the fine scale effects of boating infrastructure on sediment characteristics and contaminants.

Infrastructure associated with coastal communities is likely to not only directly displace natural systems, but also leave environmental footprints' that stretch over multiple scales. Some coastal infrastructure will, there- fore, generate a hidden layer of habitat heterogeneity in sediment systems that is not immediately observable in classical impact assessment frameworks. We examine the hidden heterogeneity associated with one of the most ubiquitous coastal modifications; dense swing moorings fields. Using a model based geo-statistical framework we highlight the variation in sedimentology throughout mooring fields and reference locations. Moorings were correlated with patches of sediment with larger particle sizes, and associated metal(loid) concentrations in these patches were depressed. Our work highlights two important ideas i) mooring fields create a mosaic of habitat in which contamination decreases and grain sizes increase close to moorings, and ii) model- based frameworks provide an information rich, easy-to-interpret way to communicate complex analyses to stakeholders.

Coastal urban lighting has ecological consequences for multiple trophic levels under the sea.

Urban land and seascapes are increasingly exposed to artificial lighting at night (ALAN), which is a significant source of light pollution. A broad range of ecological effects are associated with ALAN, but the changes to ecological processes remain largely unstudied. Predation is a key ecological process that structures assemblages and responds to natural cycles of light and dark. We investigated the effect of ALAN on fish predatory behaviour, and sessile invertebrate prey assemblages. Over 21days fish and sessile assemblages were exposed to 3 light treatments (Day, Night and ALAN). An array of LED spotlights was installed under a wharf to create the ALAN treatments. We used GoPro cameras to film during the day and ALAN treatments, and a Dual frequency IDentification SONar (DIDSON) to film during the night treatments. Fish were most abundant during unlit nights, but were also relatively sedentary. Predatory behaviour was greatest during the day and under ALAN than at night, suggesting that fish are using structures for non-feeding purposes (e.g. shelter) at night, but artificial light dramatically increases their predatory behaviour. Altered predator behaviour corresponded with structural changes to sessile prey assemblages among the experimental lighting treatments. We demonstrate the direct effects of artificial lighting on fish behaviour and the concomitant indirect effects on sessile assemblage structure. Current and future projected use of artificial lights has the potential to significantly affect predator-prey interactions in marine systems by altering habitat use for both predators and prey. However, developments in lighting technology are a promising avenue for mitigation. This is among the first empirical evidence from the marine system on how ALAN can directly alter predation, a fundamental ecosystem process, and have indirect trophic consequences.

Building 'blue': An eco-engineering framework for foreshore developments.

Urbanisation in terrestrial systems has driven architects, planners, ecologists and engineers to collaborate on the design and creation of more sustainable structures. Examples include the development of 'green infrastructure' and the introduction of wildlife corridors that mitigate urban stressors and provide positive ecological outcomes. In contrast, efforts to minimise the impacts of urban developments in marine environments have been far more restricted in their extent and scope, and have often overlooked the ecological role of the built environment as potential habitat. Urban foreshore developments, i.e. those built on the interface of intertidal and/or subtidal zones, have the potential to incorporate clear multi-functional outcomes, by supporting novel ecosystems. We present a step-by-step eco-engineering framework for 'building blue' that will allow coastal managers to facilitate planning and construction of sustainable foreshore developments. Adopting such an approach will incorporate ecological principles, thereby mitigating some of the environmental impacts, creating more resilient urban infrastructure and environments, and maximising benefits to the multiple stakeholders and users of marine urban waterfronts.

Relapse after withdrawal from anti-TNF therapy for inflammatory bowel disease: an observational study, plus systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Infliximab and adalimumab have established roles in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapy. UK regulators mandate reassessment after 12 months' anti-TNF therapy for IBD, with consideration of treatment withdrawal. There is a need for more data to establish the relapse rates following treatment cessation. AIM: To establish outcomes following anti-TNF withdrawal for sustained remission using new data from a large UK cohort, and assimilation of all available literature for systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: A retrospective observational study was performed on 166 patients with IBD (146 with Crohn's disease (CD) and 20 with ulcerative colitis [UC) and IBD unclassified (IBDU)] withdrawn from anti-TNF for sustained remission. Meta-analysis was undertaken of all published studies incorporating 11 further cohorts totalling 746 patients (624 CD, 122 UC). RESULTS: Relapse rates in the UK cohort were 36% by 1 year and 56% by 2 years for CD, and 42% by 1 year and 47% by 2 years for UC/IBDU. Increased relapse risk in CD was associated with age at diagnosis [hazard ratio (HR) 2.78 for age <22 years], white cell count (HR 3.22 for >5.25 × 109 /L) and faecal calprotectin (HR 2.95 for >50 µg/g) at drug withdrawal. Neither continued immunomodulators nor endoscopic remission were predictors. In the meta-analysis, estimated 1-year relapse rates were 39% and 35% for CD and UC/IBDU respectively. Retreatment with anti-TNF was successful in 88% for CD and 76% UC/IBDU. CONCLUSIONS: Assimilation of all available data reveals remarkable homogeneity. Approximately one-third of patients with IBD flare within 12 months of withdrawal of anti-TNF therapy for sustained remission.

Bearing the burden of boat harbours: heavy contaminant and fouling loads in a native habitat-forming alga.

Boat harbours are an increasingly common form of artificial habitat. This paper presents a comparative study of contaminants and foulers of a habitat-forming native kelp (Saccharina latissima) in four marinas and four reference locations along the south-west coast of the UK. Fouling of algal laminae was light (<2% cover) in reference locations, while epibiota cover ranged from 25% to 80% of laminae in marinas. Metals associated with antifouling paints were up to six times more concentrated in algal tissues from marinas than from the reference locations. Marinas also carried the greatest cover and diversity of non-indigenous epibiota on the kelp laminae. This indicates not only a potential stress to kelps in these environments, but also the possibility that detached laminae will act as vectors for the dispersal of non-indigenous species. The development of boat harbours creates habitats that are high risk source localities for pollution-tolerant fouling organisms.

Major conservation policy issues for biodiversity in Oceania.

Oceania is a diverse region encompassing Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand, and Polynesia, and it contains six of the world's 39 hotspots of diversity. It has a poor record for extinctions, particularly for birds on islands and mammals. Major causes include habitat loss and degradation, invasive species, and overexploitation. We identified six major threatening processes (habitat loss and degradation, invasive species, climate change, overexploitation, pollution, and disease) based on a comprehensive review of the literature and for each developed a set of conservation policies. Many policies reflect the urgent need to deal with the effects of burgeoning human populations (expected to increase significantly in the region) on biodiversity. There is considerable difference in resources for conservation, including people and available scientific information, which are heavily biased toward more developed countries in Oceania. Most scientific publications analyzed for four threats (habitat loss, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution) are from developed countries: 88.6% of Web of Science publications were from Australia (53.7%), New Zealand (24.3%), and Hawaiian Islands (10.5%). Many island states have limited resources or expertise. Even countries that do (e.g., Australia, New Zealand) have ongoing and emerging significant challenges, particularly with the interactive effects of climate change. Oceania will require the implementation of effective policies for conservation if the region's poor record on extinctions is not to continue.

Dredging related metal bioaccumulation in oysters.

Bivalves are regularly used as biomonitors of contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters. We used oysters to assess short term changes in metal availability caused by the resuspension of contaminated sediments. Sydney Rock Oysters, Saccostrea glomerata, were deployed at multiple sites in Port Kembla Harbour and two reference estuaries for 11weeks before dredging and for two equivalent periods during dredging. Saccostrea experienced large increases in accumulation of zinc, copper and tin during dredging in the Port relative to oysters deployed in reference estuaries. Lead and tin were found to be permanently elevated within Port Kembla. We present a clear and un-confounded demonstration of the potential for dredging activities to cause large scale increases in water column contamination. Our results also demonstrate the usefulness of external reference locations in overcoming temporal confounding in bioaccumulation studies.

Shallow moving structures promote marine invader dominance.

Global increases in urban development have resulted in severe habitat modification in many estuaries. Most are now dominated by artificial structures, which might have a myriad of effects on native species. The provision of extra hard substrata presents additional free space, and recent research suggests non-indigenous epifauna may be able to exploit these artificial structures (particularly pontoons) more effectively than native species. The early development of fouling assemblages was compared on settlement plates attached to fixed or moving experimental structures at depths of 0.5 m and 2 m. Invertebrate invaders as a group were disproportionately more numerous on shallow, moving plates (essentially floating surfaces) than on deeper plates, whereas native epifauna were less numerous than invaders in all treatments. Importantly, however, individual invasive species showed differing effects of movement and depth. Future management strategies should take into account the potential for shallow, moving structures to enhance invader dominance and strongly consider using fixed structures to reduce opportunities for invaders.

Differential effects of tributyltin and copper antifoulants on recruitment of non-indigenous species.

Maritime transport is a primary vector for many marine invaders. For the past two decades, most commercial vessels have used tributyltin (TBT) antifouling (AF) paint, whereas recreational vessels have been restricted to alternatives, most commonly containing copper. Settlement plates painted with a collar of copper or TBT AF paint, and unpainted control plates, were deployed in commercial and recreational embayments in Port Jackson, Australia, and sampled photographically after 5 and 10 months. Copper enhanced early recruitment of several non-indigenous species (NIS), whereas recruitment of indigenous species was typically reduced by copper. TBT limited the recruitment of NIS for just 5 months and indigenous species, for the entire study. The results suggest that the use of toxic AF paints, and the possible accumulation of AF biocides in embayments, may be negatively affecting indigenous epibiota. Conversely, copper antifoulants on recreational vessels may be facilitating the transport and establishment of copper tolerant NIS into disturbed estuarine habitats.

Novel techniques for field assessment of copper toxicity on fouling assemblages.

Laboratory toxicity tests generally expose organisms to a constant concentration of a toxicant in a uniform environment. The two techniques outlined in this paper assess the impact of a model toxicant, copper, on marine fouling assemblages in the field. These techniques allow natural assemblages to develop under a regime of toxicant dosing. The experiments were conducted using both techniques over time frames ranging from 2 weeks to 6 months. Short term experiments using the techniques assess the effects of toxicant exposure on recruitment. The longer term experiments enabled detection of certain indirect impacts of pollution. These include effects due to competition for space and variations in the susceptibility of organisms with age. Over the course of the experiments, a range of responses to copper was observed for different taxa. Both techniques have the potential to be used for testing the impact of other toxicants. Approaches such as those described are necessary in order to understand how communities react to toxicants in real world situations.