On Neuroeducation: Why and How to Improve Neuroscientific Literacy in Educational Professionals.

New findings from the neurosciences receive much interest for use in the applied field of education. For the past 15 years, neuroeducation and the application of neuroscience knowledge were seen to have promise, but there is presently some lack of progress. The present paper states that this is due to several factors. Neuromyths are still prevalent, and there is a confusion of tongues between the many neurodisciplines and the domains of behavioral and educational sciences. Second, a focus upon cognitive neuroimaging research has yielded findings that are scientifically relevant, but cannot be used for direct application in the classroom. A third factor pertains to the emphasis which has been on didactics and teaching, whereas the promise of neuroeducation for the teacher may lie more on pedagogical inspiration and support. This article states that the most important knowledge and insights have to do with the notion of brain plasticity; the vision that development is driven by an interaction between a person's biology and the social system. This helps individuals to select and process information, and to adapt to the personal environment. The paper describes how brain maturation and neuropsychological development extend through the important period of adolescence and emergent adulthood. Over this long period, there is a major development of the Executive Functions (EFs) that are essential for both cognitive learning, social behavior and emotional processing and, eventually, personal growth. The paper describes the basic neuroscience knowledge and insights - or "neuroscientific literacy" - that the educational professional should have to understand and appreciate the above-described themes. The authors formulate a proposal for four themes of neuroscience content "that every teacher should know." These four themes are based on the Neuroscience Core Concepts formulated by the Society for Neuroscience. The authors emphasize that integrating neuroscientific knowledge and insights in the field of education should not be a one-way street; attempts directed at improving neuroscientific literacy are a transdisciplinary undertaking. Teacher trainers, experts from the neuroscience fields but also behavioral scientists from applied fields (notable applied neuropsychologists) should all contribute to for the educational innovations needed.

Relationships between intrinsic functional connectivity, cognitive control, and reading achievement across development.

There are vast individual differences in reading achievement between students. Besides structural and functional variability in domain-specific brain regions, these differences may partially be explained by the organization of domain-general functional brain networks. In the current study we used resting-state functional MRI data from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (PNC; N = 553; ages 8-22) to examine the relation between performance on a well-validated reading assessment task, the Wide Range Achievement Word Reading Test (WRAT-Reading) and patterns of functional connectivity. We focused specifically on functional connectivity within and between networks associated with cognitive control, and investigated whether the relationship with academic test performance was mediated by cognitive control abilities. We show that individuals with higher scores on the WRAT-Reading, have stronger lateralization in frontoparietal networks, increased functional connectivity between dorsal striatum and the dorsal attention network, and reduced functional connectivity between dorsal and ventral striatum. The relationship between functional connectivity and reading performance was mediated by cognitive control abilities (i.e., performance on a composite measure of executive function and complex cognition), but not by abilities in other domains, demonstrating the specificity of our findings. Finally, there were no significant interactions with age, suggesting that the observed brain-behavior relationships stay relatively stable over the course of development. Our findings provide important insights into the functional significance of inter-individual variability in the network architecture of the developing brain, showing that functional connectivity in domain-general control networks is relevant to academic achievement in the reading domain.

What you read versus what you know: Neural correlates of accessing context information and background knowledge in constructing a mental representation during reading.

A core issue in psycholinguistic research is what the online processes are by which we combine language input and our background knowledge to construct the meaning of a message. We investigate this issue in the context of reading. To build a coherent and correct mental representation of a text readers monitor incoming information for consistency with the preceding text and with their background knowledge. Prior studies have not distinguished between text-based and knowledge-based monitoring, therefore it is unclear to what extent these two aspects of text comprehension proceed independently or interactively. We addressed this issue in a contradiction paradigm with coherent and incoherent versions of texts. We combined behavioral data with neuroimaging data to investigate shared and unique brain networks involved in text-based and knowledge-based monitoring, focusing on monitoring processes that affected long-term memory representations. Consistent with prior findings, behavioral results indicate that text and background knowledge each have a unique influence on processing. However, neuroimaging data suggests a more nuanced interpretation: Text-based and knowledge-based monitoring involve shared and unique brain regions, as well as regions that are sensitive to interactions between the two sources. It appears that the (d)mPFC and hippocampus-which are important for the influence of existing knowledge on encoding processes in nonreading contexts-are particularly involved in knowledge-based monitoring. In contrast, the right IFG is primarily involved in text-based monitoring, whereas left IFG and precuneus are implicated in integration processes. Furthermore, processes during reading affect recall of information (in)consistent with prior text or background knowledge. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

State-Dependent Functional Dysconnectivity in Youth With Psychosis Spectrum Symptoms.

Psychosis spectrum disorders are conceptualized as neurodevelopmental disorders accompanied by disruption of large-scale functional brain networks. Dynamic functional dysconnectivity has been described in patients with schizophrenia and in help-seeking individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Less is known, about developmental aspects of dynamic functional network connectivity (dFNC) associated with psychotic symptoms (PS) in the general population. Here, we investigate resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging data using established dFNC methods in the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (ages 8-22 years), including 129 participants experiencing PS and 452 participants without PS (non-PS). Functional networks were identified using group spatial independent component analysis. A sliding window approach and k-means clustering were applied to covariance matrices of all functional networks to identify recurring whole-brain connectivity states. PS-associated dysconnectivity of default mode, salience, and executive networks occurred only in a few states, whereas dysconnectivity in the sensorimotor and visual systems in PS youth was more pervasive, observed across multiple states. This study provides new evidence that disruptions of dFNC are present even at the less severe end of the psychosis continuum in youth, complementing previous work on help-seeking and clinically diagnosed cohorts that represent the more severe end of this spectrum.

Disruptions in White Matter Maturation and Mediation of Cognitive Development in Youths on the Psychosis Spectrum.

BACKGROUND: Psychosis onset typically occurs in adolescence, and subclinical psychotic experiences peak in adolescence. Adolescence is also a time of critical neural and cognitive maturation. Using cross-sectional data from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, we examined whether regional white matter (WM) development is disrupted in youths with psychosis spectrum (PS) features and whether WM maturation mediates the relationship between age and cognition in typically developing (TD) youths and youths with PS features. METHODS: We examined WM microstructure, as assessed via diffusion tensor imaging, in 670 individuals (age 10-22 years; 499 TD group, 171 PS group) by using tract-based spatial statistics. Multiple regressions were used to evaluate age × group interactions on regional WM indices. Mediation analyses were conducted on four cognitive domains-executive control, complex cognition, episodic memory, and social cognition-using a bootstrapping approach. RESULTS: There were age × group interactions on fractional anisotropy (FA) in the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) and retrolenticular internal capsule. Follow-up analyses revealed these effects were significant in both hemispheres. Bilateral SLF FA mediated the relationship between age and complex cognition in the TD group, but not the PS group. Regional FA did not mediate the age-associated increase in any of the other cognitive domains. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed aberrant age-related effects in SLF and retrolenticular internal capsule FA in youths with PS features. SLF development supports emergence of specific higher-order cognitive functions in TD youths, but not in youths with PS features. Future mechanistic explanations for these relationships could facilitate development of earlier and refined targets for therapeutic interventions.

Aberrant resting-state functional connectivity in limbic and salience networks in treatment--naïve clinically depressed adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Depression is prevalent and typically has its onset in adolescence. Resting-state fMRI could help create a better understanding of the underlying neurobiological mechanisms during this critical period. In this study, resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) is examined using seed regions-of-interest (ROIs) associated with three networks: the limbic network, the default mode network (DMN) and the salience network. METHODS: Twenty-six treatment-naïve, clinically depressed adolescents of whom 18 had comorbid anxiety, and 26 pair-wise matched healthy controls underwent resting-state fMRI. The three networks were investigated using a seed-based ROI approach with seeds in the bilateral amygdala (limbic network), bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC; salience network) and bilateral posterior cingulate cortex (default mode network). RESULTS: Compared to healthy controls, clinically depressed adolescents showed increased RSFC of the left amygdala with right parietal cortical areas, and decreased right amygdala RSFC with left frontal cortical areas including the ACC, as well as with right occipito-parietal areas. The bilateral dACC showed decreased RSFC with the right middle frontal gyrus, frontal pole, and inferior frontal gyrus in clinically depressed adolescents. No abnormalities in DMN RSFC were found, and differences in RSFC did not correlate with clinical measures. CONCLUSIONS: The aberrant RSFC of the amygdala network and the dACC network may be related to altered emotion processing and regulation in depressed adolescents. Our results provide new insights into RSFC in clinically depressed adolescents and future models on adolescent depression may include abnormalities in the connectivity of salience network.

Neural predictors of individual differences in response to math tutoring in primary-grade school children.

Now, more than ever, the ability to acquire mathematical skills efficiently is critical for academic and professional success, yet little is known about the behavioral and neural mechanisms that drive some children to acquire these skills faster than others. Here we investigate the behavioral and neural predictors of individual differences in arithmetic skill acquisition in response to 8-wk of one-to-one math tutoring. Twenty-four children in grade 3 (ages 8-9 y), a critical period for acquisition of basic mathematical skills, underwent structural and resting-state functional MRI scans pretutoring. A significant shift in arithmetic problem-solving strategies from counting to fact retrieval was observed with tutoring. Notably, the speed and accuracy of arithmetic problem solving increased with tutoring, with some children improving significantly more than others. Next, we examined whether pretutoring behavioral and brain measures could predict individual differences in arithmetic performance improvements with tutoring. No behavioral measures, including intelligence quotient, working memory, or mathematical abilities, predicted performance improvements. In contrast, pretutoring hippocampal volume predicted performance improvements. Furthermore, pretutoring intrinsic functional connectivity of the hippocampus with dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices and the basal ganglia also predicted performance improvements. Our findings provide evidence that individual differences in morphometry and connectivity of brain regions associated with learning and memory, and not regions typically involved in arithmetic processing, are strong predictors of responsiveness to math tutoring in children. More generally, our study suggests that quantitative measures of brain structure and intrinsic brain organization can provide a more sensitive marker of skill acquisition than behavioral measures.

Prefrontal cortex involvement in creative problem solving in middle adolescence and adulthood.

Creative cognition, defined as the generation of new yet appropriate ideas and solutions, serves important adaptive purposes. Here, we tested whether and how middle adolescence, characterized by transformations toward life independency and individuality, is a more profitable phase than adulthood for creative cognition. Behavioral and neural differences for creative problem solving in adolescents (15-17 years) and adults (25-30 years) were measured while performing a matchstick problem task (MPT) in the scanner and the creative ability test (CAT), a visuo-spatial divergent thinking task, outside the scanner. Overall performances were comparable, although MPT performance indicated an advantage for adolescents in creative problem solving. In addition, adolescents showed more activation in lateral prefrontal cortex (ventral and dorsal) during creative problem solving compared to adults. These areas correlated with performances on the MPT and the CAT performance. We discuss that extended prefrontal cortex activation in adolescence is important for exploration and aids in creative cognition.

Functional brain connectivity at rest changes after working memory training.

Networks of functional connectivity are highly consistent across participants, suggesting that functional connectivity is for a large part predetermined. However, several studies have shown that functional connectivity may change depending on instructions or previous experience. In the present study, we investigated whether 6 weeks of practice with a working memory task changes functional connectivity during a resting period preceding the task. We focused on two task-relevant networks, the frontoparietal network and the default network, using seed regions in the right middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC), respectively. After practice, young adults showed increased functional connectivity between the right MFG and other regions of the frontoparietal network, including bilateral superior frontal gyrus, paracingulate gyrus, and anterior cingulate cortex. In addition, they showed reduced functional connectivity between the medial PFC and right posterior middle temporal gyrus. Moreover, a regression with performance changes revealed a positive relation between performance increases and changes of frontoparietal connectivity, and a negative relation between performance increases and changes of default network connectivity. Next, to study whether experience-dependent effects would be different during development, we also examined practice effects in a pilot sample of 12-year-old children. No practice effects were found in this group, suggesting that practice-related changes of functional connectivity are age-dependent. Nevertheless, future studies with larger samples are necessary to confirm this hypothesis.

The neural coding of creative idea generation across adolescence and early adulthood.

Creativity is considered key to human prosperity, yet the neurocognitive principles underlying creative performance, and their development, are still poorly understood. To fill this void, we examined the neural correlates of divergent thinking in adults (25-30 years) and adolescents (15-17 years). Participants generated alternative uses (AU) or ordinary characteristics (OC) for common objects while brain activity was assessed using fMRI. Adults outperformed adolescents on the number of solutions for AU and OC trials. Contrasting neural activity for AU with OC trials revealed increased recruitment of left angular gyrus, left supramarginal gyrus, and bilateral middle temporal gyrus in both adults and adolescents. When only trials with multiple AU were included in the analysis, participants showed additional left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)/middle frontal gyrus (MFG) activation for AU compared to OC trials. Correspondingly, individual difference analyses showed a positive correlation between activations for AU relative to OC trials in left IFG/MFG and divergent thinking performance and activations were more pronounced in adults than in adolescents. Taken together, the results of this study demonstrated that creative idea generation involves recruitment of mainly left lateralized parietal and temporal brain regions. Generating multiple creative ideas, a hallmark of divergent thinking, shows additional lateral PFC activation that is not yet optimized in adolescence.

Practice effects in the developing brain: a pilot study.

Functions that rely on dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortex, including working memory manipulation, are among the latest functions to mature. Yet, several behavioral studies have shown that children may improve on these functions after extensive practice. In this pilot study, we examined whether children would be able to demonstrate increased frontoparietal brain activation after practice. Twelve-year-old children and young adults practiced for 6 weeks with a working memory manipulation task. Before and after practice, functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired. Both children and adults demonstrated better performance, lasting at least up to 6 months after the practice period. Before practice, children showed immature frontoparietal activation for manipulation of information in working memory relative to pure maintenance, specifically during the delay period of the task. After practice, the activation differences between children and adults were considerably reduced, suggesting that children may show increased frontoparietal activation if given extensive practice. These preliminary findings argue against the hypothesis that certain brain structures cannot be engaged because of immaturity. Yet, future studies with larger samples should further examine flexibility in the developing brain, and establish what can and cannot be expected of children across school-aged development.

Training the developing brain: a neurocognitive perspective.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRAINING STUDIES ARE IMPORTANT TO INCREASE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE POTENTIAL OF THE DEVELOPING BRAIN BY PROVIDING ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS SUCH AS: "Which functions can and which functions cannot be improved as a result of practice?," "Is there a specific period during which training has more impact?," and "Is it always advantageous to train a particular function?"In addition, neuroimaging methods provide valuable information about the underlying mechanisms that drive cognitive plasticity. In this review, we describe how neuroscientific studies of training effects inform us about the possibilities of the developing brain, pointing out that childhood is a special period during which training may have different effects. We conclude that there is much complexity in interpreting training effects in children. Depending on the type of training and the level of maturation of the individual, training may influence developmental trajectories in different ways. We propose that the immature brain structure might set limits on how much can be achieved with training, but that the immaturity can also have advantages, in terms of flexibility for learning.

Developmental differences in prefrontal activation during working memory maintenance and manipulation for different memory loads.

The ability to keep information active in working memory is one of the cornerstones of cognitive development. Prior studies have demonstrated that regions which are important for working memory performance in adults, such as dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and superior parietal cortex, become increasingly engaged across school-aged development. The primary goal of the present functional MRI study was to investigate the involvement of these regions in the development of working memory manipulation relative to maintenance functions under different loads. We measured activation in DLPFC, VLPFC, and superior parietal cortex during the delay period of a verbal working memory task in 11-13-year-old children and young adults. We found evidence for age-related behavioral improvements in working memory and functional changes within DLPFC and VLPFC activation patterns. Although activation profiles of DLPFC and VLPFC were similar, group differences were most pronounced for right DLPFC. Consistent with prior studies, right DLPFC showed an interaction between age and condition (i.e. manipulation versus maintenance), specifically at the lower loads. This interaction was characterized by increased activation for manipulation relative to maintenance trials in adults compared to children. In contrast, we did not observe a significant age-dependent load sensitivity. These results suggest that age-related differences in the right DLPFC are specific to working memory manipulation and are not related to task difficulty and/or differences in short-term memory capacity.

A comprehensive study of whole-brain functional connectivity in children and young adults.

Over the past decade, examination of functional connectivity using functional magnetic resonance imaging has become an important tool to investigate functional changes in patient populations, healthy aging, and recently also child development. Most prior developmental studies focused on functional connectivity between brain regions important for cognitive or emotional control and the so-called "default-mode network." In the present study, we investigated whole-brain functional connectivity in children (11-13 years; N = 19) and young adults (19-25 years; N = 29), without a priori restrictions to specific regions. We found similar patterns of functionally connected regions in children and young adults, but there were differences in the size of functionally connected regions (i.e., the number of voxels), as well as in the strength of functional connectivity (i.e., the correlation value) between brain regions. This indicates that functional connectivity continues to change during adolescence. Developmental differences were found across the whole brain, but the effects differed for functional connectivity patterns associated with higher cognitive or emotional functions and functional connectivity patterns associated with basic visual and sensorimotor functions. Finally, we showed that the majority of functional connectivity differences could not be explained on the basis of gray matter density alone.

Practice effects in the brain: Changes in cerebral activation after working memory practice depend on task demands.

Several studies have examined the neural effects of working memory practice, but due to different task demands, diverse patterns of neural changes have been reported. In the present study, we examined neural effects of practice using a task with different working memory demands within a single practice paradigm. Fifteen adults practiced during 6weeks with a task that required maintenance and manipulation of information under low and high working memory loads. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) data were acquired in the first week and last week of the practice period. Results were compared with results of a control group who did not practice the task. We demonstrated that practice was beneficial for both working memory maintenance and manipulation processes but that these processes were supported by different neural changes. While maintenance trials showed increased activation (i.e., less deactivation) in default-mode regions after practice, manipulation trials experienced increased activation in the striatum. Changes were also observed in left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left superior parietal cortex (SPC). However, for bilateral DLPFC and left SPC, these changes were not specific to the practice group. These findings illustrate the importance of controlling for test-retest effects in training or intervention studies. Behavioral follow-up tests demonstrated that practice effects lasted over a 6-month period, but the absence of transfer effects indicated that the acquired skills were specific for the practiced working memory task.