Contrasting Objective and Perceived Risk: Predicting COVID-19 Health Behaviors in a Nationally Representative U.S. Sample.

BACKGROUND: Individuals confronting health threats may display an optimistic bias such that judgments of their risk for illness or death are unrealistically positive given their objective circumstances. PURPOSE: We explored optimistic bias for health risks using k-means clustering in the context of COVID-19. We identified risk profiles using subjective and objective indicators of severity and susceptibility risk for COVID-19. METHODS: Between 3/18/2020-4/18/2020, a national probability sample of 6,514 U.S. residents reported both their subjective risk perceptions (e.g., perceived likelihood of illness or death) and objective risk indices (e.g., age, weight, pre-existing conditions) of COVID-19-related susceptibility and severity, alongside other pandemic-related experiences. Six months later, a subsample (N = 5,661) completed a follow-up survey with questions about their frequency of engagement in recommended health protective behaviors (social distancing, mask wearing, risk behaviors, vaccination intentions). RESULTS: The k-means clustering procedure identified five risk profiles in the Wave 1 sample; two of these demonstrated aspects of optimistic bias, representing almost 44% of the sample. In OLS regression models predicting health protective behavior adoption at Wave 2, clusters representing individuals with high perceived severity risk were most likely to report engagement in social distancing, but many individuals who were objectively at high risk for illness and death did not report engaging in self-protective behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Objective risk of disease severity only inconsistently predicted health protective behavior. Risk profiles may help identify groups that need more targeted interventions to increase their support for public health policy and health enhancing recommendations more broadly.

As we move into an endemic stage of the COVID-19 pandemic, understanding engagement in health behaviors to curb the spread of disease remains critically important to manage COVID-19 and other health threats. However, peoples' perceptions about their risk of getting sick and having severe outcomes if they do fall ill are subject to bias. We studied a nationally representative probability sample of over 6,500 U.S. residents who completed surveys immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic began and approximately 6 months later. We used a computer processing (i.e., machine learning) approach to categorize participants based on both their actual risk factors for COVID-19 and their subjective understanding of that risk. Our analysis identified groups of individuals whose subjective perceptions of risk did not align with their actual risk characteristics. Specifically, almost 44% of our sample demonstrated an optimistic bias: they did not report higher risk of death from COVID-19 despite having one or more well-known risk factors for poor disease outcomes (e.g., older age, obesity). Six months later, membership in these risk groups prospectively predicted engagement in health protective and risky behaviors, as well as vaccine intentions, demonstrating how early risk perceptions may influence health behaviors over time.

The assessment of caregiver self-efficacy in a virtual eating disorder setting.

BACKGROUND: Caregiver self-efficacy is thought to be a key component for successful family-based treatment (FBT) for individuals with eating disorders. As such, interventions aimed at enhancing caregiver self-efficacy, often measured via the Parents Versus Anorexia scale, have been a focal point of FBT literature. However, studies looking at the relationship between caregiver self-efficacy and treatment outcomes have been mixed. We aimed to better understand the influence of caregiver self-efficacy on eating disorder treatment outcomes during FBT. METHODS: Caregiver self-efficacy was measured using the Parents Versus Eating Disorders (PVED) scale, an adapted version of the Parents Versus Anorexia scale, in a sample of 1051 patients with an eating disorder and 1528 caregivers (patients can have more than one caregiver) receiving virtual FBT. Across two multilevel models, we tested how caregiver self-efficacy changed over time and its association with changes in eating disorder symptoms and weight over the first 16 weeks of treatment. RESULTS: Over treatment, PVED scores increased (b = 0.79, SE = 0.04, CI [0.72, 0.86]) and starting PVED scores were predictive of improved eating disorder symptoms (b = - 0.73, SE = 0.22, CI [- 1.15, - 0.30]), but not weight (b = - 0.96, SE = 0.59, CI [- 2.10, 0.19]). We also found that PVED change-from-baseline scores were predictive of weight (b = - 0.48, SE = 0.03, CI [- 0.53, - 0.43]) such that patient weight was lower when caregiver reports of PVED were higher. Likewise, the association between caregiver change in PVED scores and weight varied as a function of treatment time (b = 0.27, SE = 0.01, CI [0.24, 0.29]). Results were consistent when isolating patients with anorexia nervosa. CONCLUSIONS: Caregiver self-efficacy during FBT improved over time but was not robustly associated with treatment outcomes. This may, in part, be due to psychometric properties of the PVED scale. We describe these issues and illustrate the need for development of a new measure of self-efficacy for caregivers supporting their loved ones through eating disorder treatment.

In family-based treatment (FBT) for eating disorders, caregivers play a central role in helping their child recover. Specifically, a caregiver's self-efficacy, or their confidence in their ability to cope with the challenges their child faces during treatment, is believed to be a key to successful treatment outcomes. However, research on the impact caregiver self-efficacy has on patient treatment outcomes is mixed. Using the Parent vs. Eating Disorder (PVED) scale, we looked at the association between caregiver self-efficacy and eating disorder symptoms and weight changes over time in a sample of 1051 patients receiving virtual FBT. Caregiver self-efficacy had little to no significant impact on treatment outcomes. We offer explanations about why our findings challenge existing research that supports the association between caregiver self-efficacy and outcomes. Namely, the PVED scale appears to measure caregiver perceptions of their role in the treatment process (and not self-efficacy). We believe a new measurement tool must be developed and tested for the field to move forward in its understanding of the role caregiver self-efficacy plays in FBT.

Shared social identity and media transmission of trauma.

When an individual or group trauma becomes a shared public experience through widespread media coverage (e.g., mass violence, being publicly outed), sharing a social identity with a targeted individual or group of victims may amplify feelings of personal vulnerability. This heightened perceived threat may draw people to engage with trauma-related media because of increased vigilance for self-relevant threats, which can, in turn, amplify distress. We studied this possibility among two U.S. national samples following the 2016 Pulse nightclub massacre in Orlando, FL (N = 4675) and the 2018 Dr. Christine Blasey Ford and Judge Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court Senate hearings (N = 4894). Participants who shared LGBT or Hispanic identities with Pulse massacre victims reported greater exposure to massacre-related media and acute stress. Participants who shared Dr. Blasey Ford's identities as a victim of interpersonal violence and a Democrat reported more hearings-related media exposure and acute stress. Indirect effects of shared single identity on acute stress through self-reported event-related media exposure emerged in both studies. Results for sharing dual identities with victims were mixed. These findings have implications for media use and public health.

Idiosyncratic media exposures during a pandemic and their link to well-being, cognition, and behavior over time.

Over the past two decades of research, increased media consumption in the context of collective traumas has been cross-sectionally and longitudinally linked to negative psychological outcomes. However, little is known about the specific information channels that may drive these patterns of response. The current longitudinal investigation uses a probability-based sample of 5,661 Americans measured at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic to identify a) distinct patterns of information-channel use (i.e., dimensions) for COVID-related information, b) demographic correlates of these patterns, and c) prospective associations of these information channel dimensions with distress (i.e., worry, global distress, and emotional exhaustion), cognition (e.g., beliefs about the seriousness of COVID-19, response efficacy, and dismissive attitudes), and behavior (e.g., engaging in health-protective behaviors and risk-taking behaviors) 6 mo later. Four distinct information-channel dimensions emerged: journalistic complexity; ideologically focused news; domestically focused news; and nonnews. Results indicate that journalistic complexity was prospectively associated with more emotional exhaustion, belief in the seriousness of the coronavirus, response efficacy, engaging in health-protective behaviors, and less dismissiveness of the pandemic. A reliance on conservative-leaning media was prospectively associated with less psychological distress, taking the pandemic less seriously, and engaging in more risk-taking behaviors. We discuss the implications of this work for the public, policy makers, and future research.

Distortions in time perception during collective trauma: Insights from a national longitudinal study during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: During the protracted collective trauma of the COVID-19 pandemic, lay of distorted perceptions of time (e.g., time slowing, days blurring together, uncertainty about the future) have been widespread. Known as "temporal disintegration" in psychiatric literature, these distortions are associated with negative mental health consequences. However, the prevalence and predictors of temporal disintegration are poorly understood. We examined perceptions of time passing and their associations with lifetime stress and trauma and pandemic-related secondary stress as COVID-19 spread across the United States. METHOD: A probability-based national sample (N = 5,661) from the NORC AmeriSpeak online panel, which had completed a mental and physical health survey prior to the pandemic, completed two surveys online during March 18-April 18, 2020, and September 26-October 16, 2020. Distorted time perceptions and other pandemic-related experiences were assessed. RESULTS: Present focus, blurring weekdays and weekdays together, and uncertainty about the future were common experiences reported by over 65% of the sample 6 months into the pandemic. Half of the sample reported time speeding up or slowing down. Predictors of temporal disintegration include prepandemic mental health diagnoses, daily pandemic-related media exposure and secondary stress (e.g., school closures, lockdown), financial stress, and lifetime stress and trauma exposure. CONCLUSION: During the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic, distortions in time perception were very common and associated with prepandemic mental health, lifetime stress and trauma exposure, and pandemic-related media exposure and stressors. Given that temporal disintegration is a risk factor for mental health challenges, these findings have potential implications for public mental health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Psychological responses to U.S. statewide restrictions and COVID-19 exposures: A longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has generated debate as to whether community-level behavioral restrictions are worth the emotional costs of such restrictions. Using a longitudinal design, we juxtaposed the relative impacts of state-level restrictions and case counts with person-level direct and media-based exposures on distress, loneliness, and traumatic stress symptoms (TSS) during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. METHOD: From March 18, 2020 to April 18, 2020 and September 9, 2020 to October 16, 2020, a representative probability sample of U.S. adults (N = 5,594) completed surveys of their psychological responses and personal direct and media-based exposures to the COVID-19 pandemic. Survey data were merged with publicly available data on the stringency of state-level mitigation policies (e.g., school/business closures) during this period and longitudinal case/death counts for each state. RESULTS: Three multilevel models (outcomes: distress, loneliness, TSS) were constructed. Measurements of dependent variables (Level 1) were nested within respondents (Level 2) who were nested within states (Level 3). State-level mitigation, cases, or deaths were not associated with any dependent variables (all p's > .05). However, person-level exposures, including having contracted COVID-19 oneself (distress b = .22, p < .001; loneliness b = .13, p = .03; TSS b = .18, p = .001), knowing others who were sick (distress b = .04, p < .001; loneliness b = .02, p < .001; TSS b = .05, p < .001) or died (distress b = .10, p = .001; loneliness b = .10, p = .003; TSS b = .16, p < .001), and exposure to pandemic-related media (distress b = .12, p < .001; loneliness b = .09, p < .001; TSS b = .16, p < .001), were positively associated with outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Personal exposures to COVID-19 are more strongly associated with psychological outcomes than statewide mitigations levied to stop disease spread. Results may inform public health response planning for future disease outbreaks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Social Effects of an Awesome Solar Eclipse.

Astronomical events such as solar eclipses have played a transformative role in human social collectives as sources of collective wonder, inspiration, and reconciliation. Do celestial phenomena systematically shape individuals and their groups? Guided by scientific treatments of awe as an experience that helps individuals form into collectives, we used Twitter data (N = 2,891,611 users) to examine the social impact of a historic, awe-inspiring celestial event: the 2017 solar eclipse. Relative to individuals residing outside the eclipse's path, individuals inside it exhibited more awe and expressed less self-focused and more prosocial, affiliative, humble, and collective language (Study 1). Further, individuals who exhibited elevated awe surrounding the eclipse used more prosocial, affiliative, humble, and collective language relative to their preeclipse levels and relative to users who exhibited less awe (Study 2). These findings indicate that astronomical events may play a vital collective function by arousing awe and social tendencies that orient individuals toward their collectives.

Racial and ethnic differences in perseverative cognition at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

RATIONALE: Coronavirus (COVID-19) disproportionately affects people of color (e.g., Black and Latinx individuals) in the U.S., increasing their morbidity and mortality relative to White people. Despite this greater threat to their well-being, the mental health impact of COVID-19 on people of color remains poorly understood. Perseverative cognition (PC; i.e., excessive worry and/or rumination), is a common psychological response to such threats that independently associates with poor mental and physical health. OBJECTIVE: To examine patterns of PC across race/ethnicity when the COVID-19 pandemic began. METHODS: This study surveyed 6,514 respondents from the NORC AmeriSpeak panel, a probability-based representative national sample of U.S. adults between 3/18/20-4/18/20. We employed traditional statistical analyses and natural language processing of open-ended data to examine pandemic-related worries. RESULTS: Weighted regression analyses with relevant covariates revealed group differences across specific domains of COVID-related worry. Relative to White respondents, Hispanic/Latino respondents reported more worries about social disarray, meeting basic needs, experiencing economic impacts, obtaining healthcare, and contracting COVID-19. Black respondents reported more worry about economic impacts relative to Whites. Additional group differences in worry emerged in open-ended data: Black respondents perseverated about death from COVID-19, whereas Hispanic/Latino respondents reported concerns about COVID-19 spread, and people refusing to uphold mitigation mandates. In contrast, White respondents expressed worry over compromised immune systems and economic collapse. CONCLUSIONS: Results identify significant group differences in COVID-19 related PC, suggesting that people of color faced greater threat to mental well-being at the onset of the pandemic, and may be at greater risk for downstream PC-related physical health consequences.

The costs outweigh the benefits: seeing side-effects online may decrease adherence to statins.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of medical misinformation on the Internet has received much attention among researchers concerned that exposure to such information may inhibit patient adherence to prescriptions. Yet, little is known about information people see when they search for medical information and the extent to which exposure is directly related to their decisions to follow physician recommendations. These issues were examined using statin prescriptions as a case study. METHODS: We developed and used a tool to rank the quality of statin-related web pages based on the presence of information about side effects, clinical benefits, management of side effects, and misinformation. We then conducted an experiment in which students were presented with a hypothetical scenario in which an older relative was prescribed a statin but was unsure whether to take the medication. Participants were asked to search the web for information about statins and make a recommendation to this relative. Their search activity was logged using a web-browser add-on. Websites each participant visited were scored for quality using our tool, quality scores were aggregated for each participant and were subsequently used to predict their recommendation. RESULTS: Exposure to statin-related benefits and management of side effects during the search was significantly associated with a higher probability of recommending that an older relative adhere to their physician's recommendation. Exposure to misinformation and side effects were not associated, nor were any other participant characteristics. Bigram analyses of the top reasons participants gave for their recommendation mirrored the statistical findings, except that among participants who did not recommend following the prescription order, myriad side effects were mentioned. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that units of information people see on health-related websites are not treated equally. Our methods offer new understanding at a granular level about the impact of Internet searches on health decisions regarding evidence-based recommended medications. Our findings may be useful to physicians considering ways to address non-adherence. Preventive care should include actively engaging patients in discussions about health information they may find on the web. The effectiveness of this strategy should be examined in future studies.

This is not a drill: Anxiety on Twitter following the 2018 Hawaii false missile alert.

The accuracy of emergency management alerts about dangerous threats to public safety is key for the protection of life and property. When alerts of imminent threats are believed to be real, uncontrollable, and impossible to escape, people who receive them often experience fear and anxiety, especially as they await the threat's arrival (i.e., incubation of threat). However, what are the consequences when an alert turns out to be a false alarm? We explored psychological reactions (i.e., anxiety) to the 2018 Hawaii false ballistic missile alert using Twitter data from users across the state (1.2 million tweets, 14,830 users) 6 weeks before and 18 days after the event. We demonstrated that anxiety expressed on Twitter increased 4.6% on the day of the false alert and anxiety during the 38-min alert period increased 3.4% every 15 min. In addition, users who expressed either low, medium, or high prealert anxiety exhibited differential anxiety responses postalert, differential stabilization intervals (when anxiety stopped decreasing after the all-clear), and different postalert baselines relative to their prealert levels. Low prealert anxiety users expressed more anxiety at the onset of the alert and for longer relative to other groups. Moreover, anxiety remained elevated for at least 7 days postalert. Taken together, findings suggest that false alarms of inescapable and dangerous threats are anxiety-provoking and that this anxiety can persist for many people after the threat is dispelled. We offer several recommendations for how emergency management agencies should best communicate with the public after false alerts are transmitted. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Using Big Data to Study the Impact of Mass Violence: Opportunities for the Traumatic Stress Field.

Studying the community impact of mass violence using a Big Data approach from social media data (e.g., Twitter) offers traumatic stress researchers an unprecedented opportunity to study and clarify theoretical assumptions using large-scale, observational, ecologically valid data. We describe challenges and benefits of working with Twitter data and briefly review studies that used Twitter data to explore community responses to mass violence. We then demonstrate the use of Twitter data to examine community responses to a specific event: the 2015 San Bernardino terrorist attack, in which 14 people were killed and 22 were wounded. In a 6-week time frame around this attack, we evaluated the time course of community-level negative emotion. We downloaded 1.16 million tweets, representing 25,894 users from San Bernardino, CA, and a matched control community, Stockton, CA. All tweets were coded in R using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) negative emotion dictionary. A piecewise regression technique with a discontinuity analysis was used to evaluate pre- and postevent trajectories of negative emotion across the study window. Controlling for within-user variability, negative emotion increased by 6.2%, ß = .182, SE = .014, p < .001, in San Bernardino on the day of the attack and remained elevated for 5 days; no elevation was observed in Stockton. We discuss how data-driven text analytic techniques are useful for exploring Twitter content generated after collective traumas and describe challenges and opportunities accompanying analyses of social media data to understand the impact of mass violence on affected populations.

Spanish Abstracts by Asociación Chilena de Estrés Traumático (ACET) Usando BIG DATA (grandes bases de datos) para estudiar el impacto de la violencia masiva: oportunidades para el campo del estrés traumático BIG DATA Y VIOLENCIA MASIVA Estudiar el impacto de la violencia masiva en la comunidad usando la aproximación de Big Data a partir de los datos de los medios sociales (ej. Twiter) ofrece a los investigadores del estrés traumático una oportunidad sin precedentes para estudiar y clarificar asunciones teóricas utilizando datos a gran escala, observacionales y ecológicamente válidos. Describimos los desafíos y beneficios de trabajar con datos de Twiter y revisamos brevemente los estudios que usaron los datos de Twiter para explorar la respuesta de la comunidad a la violencia masiva. Luego demostramos el uso de información de Twiter para examinar las respuestas de la comunidad a un evento específico, el ataque terrorista de San Bernardino del 2015, en el que 14 personas fueron asesinadas y 22 fueron heridas. En el periodo de seis semanas alrededor del ataque, evaluamos el curso temporal de las emociones negativas a nivel comunitario. Descargamos 1.16 millonesde tweets, representando 25,894 usuarios de San Bernardino, CA, y lo comparamos con una comunidad de control, Stockton, CA. Todos los tweets fueron codificados en R usando el Diccionario de emoción negativa de Consulta Lingüística y Recuento de Palabras (LIWC por sus siglas en inglés). Se utilizó una técnica de regresión por partes con un análisis de discontinuidad para evaluar las trayectorias de las emociones negativas pre y post evento a través de la ventana del estudio. Controlando la variabilidad intra-usuario, las emociones negativas aumentaron en un 6.2%, ß = .182, SE = .014, p<.001, en San Bernardino en el día del ataque y permaneció elevado por 5 días; no se observó ningún aumento en Stockton. Discutimos como las técnicas analíticas de texto impulsadas por datos son útiles para explorar el contenido de Twitter generado después de traumas colectivos y describimos los desafíos y oportunidades que acompañan al análisis de datos de redes sociales para comprender el impacto de la violencia masiva en la población afectada.

Media exposure to mass violence events can fuel a cycle of distress.

The established link between trauma-related media exposure and distress may be cyclical: Distress can increase subsequent trauma-related media consumption that promotes increased distress to later events. We tested this hypothesis in a 3-year longitudinal study following the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings and the 2016 Orlando Pulse nightclub massacre using a national U.S. sample (N = 4165). Data were collected shortly after the bombings, 6 and 24 months post-bombings, and beginning 5 days after the Pulse nightclub massacre (approximately 1 year later; 36 months post-bombings). Bombing-related media exposure predicted posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS) 6 months later; PTS predicted worry about future negative events 2 years after the bombings, which predicted increased media consumption and acute stress following the Pulse nightclub massacre 1 year later. Trauma-related media exposure perpetuates a cycle of high distress and media use.

Who watches an ISIS beheading-And why.

In the wake of collective traumas and acts of terrorism, media bring real graphic images and videos to TV, computer, and smartphone screens. Many people consume this coverage, but who they are and why they do so is poorly understood. Using a mixed-methods design, we examined predictors of and motivations for viewing graphic media among individuals who watched a beheading video created by the terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). A representative national sample of U.S. residents (N = 3,294) reported whether they viewed a video and why (or why not) via an anonymous survey administered during a 3-year longitudinal study. Accounting for population weights, about 20% of the sample reported watching at least part of a beheading video, and about 5% reported watching an entire video. Increased likelihood of watching a video was associated with demographics (male, unemployed, and Christian), frequency of typical TV watching, and both prior lifetime exposure to violence and fear of future terrorism. Watching at least part of a beheading video was prospectively associated with fear of future negative events and global distress approximately 2 years after the beheading videos went viral. The most common reasons respondents reported for watching a beheading video were information seeking and curiosity. Results suggest attentional vigilance: Preexisting fear and history of violent victimization appear to draw individuals to graphic coverage of violence. However, viewing this coverage may contribute to subsequent fear and distress over time, likely assisting terrorists in achieving their goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Distress and rumor exposure on social media during a campus lockdown.

During crisis events, people often seek out event-related information to stay informed of what is happening. However, when information from official channels is lacking or disseminated irregularly, people may be at risk for exposure to rumors that fill the information void. We studied information-seeking during a university lockdown following an active-shooter event. In study 1, students in the lockdown (n = 3,890) completed anonymous surveys 1 week later. Those who indicated receiving conflicting information about the lockdown reported greater acute stress [standardized regression coefficient (b) = 0.07; SE = 0.01; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.04, 0.10]. Additionally, those who reported direct contact with close others via text message (or phone) and used Twitter for critical updates during the lockdown were exposed to more conflicting information. Higher acute stress was reported by heavy social media users who trusted social media for critical updates (b = 0.06, SE = 0.01; 95% CI, 0.03, 0.10). In study 2, we employed a big data approach to explore the time course of rumor transmission across 5 hours surrounding the lockdown within a subset of the university's Twitter followers. We also examined the patterning of distress in the hours during the lockdown as rumors about what was happening (e.g., presence of multiple shooters) spread among Twitter users. During periods without updates from official channels, rumors and distress increased. Results highlight the importance of releasing substantive updates at regular intervals during a crisis event and monitoring social media for rumors to mitigate rumor exposure and distress.

Tweeting negative emotion: An investigation of Twitter data in the aftermath of violence on college campuses.

Studying communities impacted by traumatic events is often costly, requires swift action to enter the field when disaster strikes, and may be invasive for some traumatized respondents. Typically, individuals are studied after the traumatic event with no baseline data against which to compare their postdisaster responses. Given these challenges, we used longitudinal Twitter data across 3 case studies to examine the impact of violence near or on college campuses in the communities of Isla Vista, CA, Flagstaff, AZ, and Roseburg, OR, compared with control communities, between 2014 and 2015. To identify users likely to live in each community, we sought Twitter accounts local to those communities and downloaded tweets of their respective followers. Tweets were then coded for the presence of event-related negative emotion words using a computerized text analysis method (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count, LIWC). In Case Study 1, we observed an increase in postevent negative emotion expression among sampled followers after mass violence, and show how patterns of response appear differently based on the timeframe under scrutiny. In Case Study 2, we replicate the pattern of results among users in the control group from Case Study 1 after a campus shooting in that community killed 1 student. In Case Study 3, we replicate this pattern in another group of Twitter users likely to live in a community affected by a mass shooting. We discuss conducting trauma-related research using Twitter data and provide guidance to researchers interested in using Twitter to answer their own research questions in this domain. (PsycINFO Database Record

Media Use and Exposure to Graphic Content in the Week Following the Boston Marathon Bombings.

Traditional and new media inform and expose the public to potentially distressing graphic content following disasters, but predictors of media use have received limited attention. We examine media-use patterns after the Boston Marathon bombings (BMB) in a representative national U.S. sample (n = 2888), with representative oversamples from metropolitan Boston (n = 845) and New York City (n = 941). Respondents completed an Internet-based survey 2-4 weeks post-BMB. Use of traditional media was correlated with older age, prior indirect media-based exposure to collective traumas, and direct BMB exposure. New media use was correlated with younger age and prior direct exposure to collective traumas. Increased television and online news viewing were associated with exposure to more graphic content. The relationship between traditional and new media was stronger for young adults than all other age groups. We offer insights about the relationship between prior collective trauma exposures and media use following subsequent disasters and identify media sources likely to expose people to graphic content.