History of Multiple Allergies and Gradual Onset Running-Related Injuries in Distance Runners: SAFER XXXV.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if any gradual onset running-related injury (GORRI) was associated with any allergies, multiple allergies (allergies to animals, plants, medication), and allergy medication use. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Two Oceans Marathons (56 km, 21.1 km), South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 76 654 race entrants (2012-2015). INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: The prevalence (%) and prevalence ratios (PR; 95% confidence intervals) for history of (1) any allergies, (2) multiple allergies to broad categories of allergens (animal material, plant material, allergies to medication, and other allergies), and (3) allergy medication use. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Using a compulsory online screening questionnaire, the outcome was a history of any GORRIs, and subcategories of GORRIs (muscle, tendon) in the past 12 months and history of GORRIs (and subtypes of GORRIs) were reported. RESULTS: In 68 258 records with injury and allergy data, the following were significantly associated with reporting any GORRIs: a history of any allergy (PR = 2.2; P < 0.0001), a history of allergies to broad categories of allergens (animal, plant, medication allergy, other) (P < 0.0001), and the use of allergy medication (P < 0.0001). A history of any allergies (PR = 2.4; P < 0.0001), all broad categories of allergies, and allergy medication use were significantly associated with muscle (P < 0.0001) and tendon injuries (P < 0.0001). The risk of reporting a GORRI increased as the number of reported categories of allergies increased (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: A novel finding was the cumulative risk effect with a history of multiple allergies. Further studies should aim to determine the underlying mechanism relating allergies and GORRIs.

Years of running, chronic diseases, and allergies are associated with gradual onset Achilles tendon injuries in 61,252 running race entrants: SAFER XXXIX study.

BACKGROUND: Gradual-onset Achilles tendon injuries (GoATIs) in runners are common. Data show that chronic diseases are associated with GoATI. OBJECTIVE: To determine risk factors associated with a history of GoATIs among long-distance runners (21.1 and 56 km) entering a mass community-based running event. METHODS: Online pre-race medical screening questionnaire data from 76,654 consenting Two Ocean Marathon race entrants (71.8% entrants) were collected prospectively over 4 years (2012-2015); this cross-sectional study is a retrospective analysis of these data. A total of 617 entrants (0.8%) reported a GoATI in the last 12 months; 60,635 entrants reported no history of any running injury (controls). Categories of factors associated with GoATI were explored (univariate and multiple regression analyses): demographics (age group, sex, race, distance), training/racing history, and history of allergy, history of chronic disease, and Composite Chronic Disease Score. Prevalence and prevalence ratios (PRs; 95% CI) are reported. RESULTS: Factors associated with a higher prevalence of a history of GoATI (univariate analysis vs. controls) were older age (>31 years) (p < .001), male sex (PR = 1.76; p < .001), and longer race distance (56 km vs. 21.1 km) (PR = 2.06; p < .001). Independent factors associated with a history of GoATI (multiple regression) were increased years of recreational running (PR = 1.17 for every 5-year increase, p < .001), higher Composite Chronic Disease Score (PR = 2.07 for every 2-unit increase, p < .001), and allergy history (PR = 1.98 p < .001). CONCLUSION: Novel independent factors associated with a history of GoATI in distance runners were increased years of recreational running, chronic disease history, and allergy history. Runners at risk for GoATI could be targeted for injury prevention interventions. Future studies should focus on establishing a causal relationship.

Sex, training variables, history of chronic disease, and chronic injury are risk factors associated with a history of exercise-associated muscle cramping in 10,973 ultramarathon race entrants: a safer XXXVIII study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of a history of exercise-associated muscle cramping (hEAMC) among ultramarathon runners is high. While the Comrades is one of the most popular mass community-based participation ultramarathons (90 km) globally, research on the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and risk factors of entrants' lifetime hEAMC are scarce. This research aimed to describe the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and risk factors of hEAMC among Comrades Marathon entrants. METHODS: This was a retrospective, cross-sectional study in which 10973 race entrants of the 2022 Comrades Marathon participated. Entrants completed a prerace medical screening questionnaire that included questions related to the lifetime prevalence (%; 95% CI), severity, treatment and risk factors (demographics, training/racing variables, chronic disease/allergies, injury) for EAMC. RESULTS: One thousand five hundred eighty-two entrants reported hEAMC in their lifetime (14.4%; 95% CI: 13.77-15.09). There was a significantly (P<0.01) higher prevalence of male (16.10%; 95% CI:15.34-16.90) than female (8.31%; 95% CI: 7.27-9.50) entrants with hEAMC (PR=1.94; 95% CI:1.68-2.23). The prevalence of hEAMC was highest in entrants with a: 1) 1 disease increase in composite disease score (PR=1.31; 95% CI:1.25-1.39); 2) history of collapse (PR=1.87; 95% CI 1.47-2.38); 3) past chronic musculoskeletal (MSK) injury (PR=1.71; 95% CI 1.50-1.94); and 4) MSK injury in the previous 12 months (PR=2.38;95% CI: 2.05-2.77). Training-related risk factors included an increase of 10 km weekly running distance (PR=0.97; 95% CI:0.95-0.99) and a training pace increase of 1min/ km (slower) (PR=1.07; 95% CI:1.03-1.12). CONCLUSIONS: Future research should investigate the causal relationship between risk factors identified and hEAMC in ultramarathon runners. Findings from this study could assist in effective anticipation and adequate planning for treating EAMC encounters during community-based mass participation events.

Risk factors associated with a history of iliotibial band syndrome (hITBS) in distance runners: a cross-sectional study in 76 654 race entrants - a SAFER XXXIII study.

BACKGROUND: Despite the numerous health benefits of distance running, it is also associated with the development of 'gradual onset running-related injuries' (GORRIs) one of which is Iliotibial Band Syndrome (ITBS). Novel risk factors associated with a history of ITBS (hITBS) have not been described in a large cohort of distance runners. OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors associated with hITBS in distance runners. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional study. SETTING: 21.1 km and 56 km Two Oceans Marathon races (2012-2015). PARTICIPANTS: 106 743 race entrants completed the online pre-race medical screening questionnaire. A total of 1 314 runners confirmed an accurate hITBS diagnosis. METHODS: Selected risk factors associated with hITBS explored included: demographics (race distance, sex, age groups), training/running variables, history of existing chronic diseases (including a composite chronic disease score) and history of any allergy. Prevalence (%) and prevalence ratios (PR; 95% CI) are reported (uni- & multiple regression analyzes). RESULTS: 1.63% entrants reported hITBS in a 12-month period. There was a higher (p < 0.0001) prevalence of hITBS in the longer race distance entrants (56 km), females, younger entrants, fewer years of recreational running (PR = 1.07; p = 0.0009) and faster average running speed (PR = 1.02; p = 0.0066). When adjusted for race distance, sex, age groups, a higher chronic disease composite score (PR = 2.38 times increased risk for every two additional chronic diseases; p < 0.0001) and a history of allergies (PR = 1.9; p < 0.0001) were independent risk factors associated with hITBS. CONCLUSION: Apart from female sex, younger age, fewer years of running and slower running speed, two novel independent risk factors associated with hITBS in distance runners are an increased number of chronic diseases and a history of allergies. Identifying athletes at higher risk for ITBS can guide healthcare professionals in their prevention and rehabilitation efforts.

Incidence of injury and illness at the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games held in a closed-loop environment: a prospective cohort study of 7332 athlete days.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of injuries and illnesses sustained during the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games, organised in a closed-loop environment to adhere with COVID-19 restrictions. METHODS: Injuries and illnesses from all teams were recorded on a daily basis by team medical staff on a web-based form and by local organising committee medical (polyclinic) facilities and venue medical support. Duplicates recorded on both systems were removed. Incidence of injuries and illnesses are reported per 1000 athlete days (95% CI). RESULTS: 564 athletes (426 male and 138 female) representing 46 countries were monitored for the 13-day period of the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games (7332 athlete days). The overall incidences were 13.0 injuries (10.6-15.8) and 6.1 illnesses (4.5-8.4) per 1000 athlete days. The incidence of injury in alpine skiing (19.9; 15.2-26.1) was significantly higher compared with Nordic skiing, ice hockey and wheelchair curling (p<0.05), while the incidence of respiratory illness was significantly higher in Nordic skiing (1.6; 0.9-2.9) compared with alpine skiing, ice hockey and snowboarding (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: The incidence of both injury and illness at the Beijing 2022 Games were the lowest yet reported in the Paralympic Winter Games. The incidence of injury was highest in alpine skiing. These findings underscore the importance of ongoing vigilance and continued injury risk mitigation strategies to safeguard the well-being of athletes in these high-risk competitions. Respiratory illnesses were most commonly reported in Nordic skiing, which included the three cases of COVID-19 recorded at the games.

Injury incidence according to athlete impairment type during the 2012 and 2016 Summer Paralympic Games: a combined analysis of 101 108 athlete days.

OBJECTIVES: The relationship between sport-related injuries and Para athlete impairment type has not yet been comprehensively studied. This study aimed to describe injury incidence according to athlete impairment type during the London 2012 and Rio 2016 Summer Paralympic Games, by sex, age, Games period, chronicity and anatomical area. METHODS: A combined analysis of 7222 athletes was conducted comprising 101 108 athlete days, using pooled data. Internet sources were used to identify impairments of registered athletes. Impairment types: brain disorders (BD), limb deficiency, neuromuscular disorders (NMD), spinal cord-related disorders, visual impairment (VI) and 'all others' (OTH: impaired passive range of movement, intellectual impairment, leg length difference, short stature and unknown impairments). Results by impairment type are reported as univariate unadjusted incidences (injuries/1000 athlete days; 95% CIs). Statistical significance between impairment types was determined when 95% CIs did not overlap. RESULTS: The overall crude unadjusted incidence of injury was 11.1 (95% CI 10.4 to 11.9), significantly higher in VI (13.7 (95% CI 11.0 to 15.7)) and NMD (13.3 (95% CI 11.1 to 16.1)) compared with BD (9.1 (95% CI 7.7 to 10.8)). Acute (sudden onset) (8.6 (95% CI 7.3 to 10.1)) and lower limb (6.6 (95% CI 5.4 to 8.1)) injuries were higher among athletes with VI, while athletes with NMD had a higher incidence of repetitive (gradual onset) (5.9 (95% CI 4.3 to 8.0)) and upper limb (6.9 (95% CI 5.2 to 9.0)) injuries compared with other impairments. CONCLUSIONS: Incidence and type of injuries differed between athlete impairment types. Athletes with VI or NMD sustained the highest incidence of injury, and athletes with BD had the lowest. Findings of this study can inform the management of competition-related injuries in Para athletes.

Rating of Perceived Exertion Associated With Acute Symptoms in Athletes With Recent SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Athletes With Acute Respiratory InfEction (AWARE) VI Study.

CONTEXT: SARS-CoV-2 infection can affect the exercise response in athletes. Factors associated with the exercise response have not been reported. OBJECTIVE: To (1) describe heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) responses to exercise in athletes with a recent SARS-CoV-2 infection and (2) identify factors affecting exercise responses. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, experimental study. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Male and female athletes (age = 24.2 ± 6.3 years) with a recent (<28 days) SARS-CoV-2 infection (n = 72). SETTING: A COVID-19 Recovery Clinic for athletes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Heart rate, SBP, and RPE were measured during submaximal exercise (modified Bruce protocol) at 10 to 28 days after SARS-CoV-2 symptom onset. Selected factors (demographics, sport, comorbidities, preinfection training variables, and symptoms during the acute phase of the infection) affecting the exercise response were analyzed using random coefficient (linear mixed) models. RESULTS: Heart rate, SBP, and RPE increased progressively from rest to stage 5 of the exercise test (P = .0001). At stage 5 (10.1 metabolic equivalents), a higher HR and a higher SBP during exercise were associated with younger age (P = .0007) and increased body mass index (BMI; P = .009), respectively. Higher RPE during exercise was significantly associated with a greater number of whole-body (P = .006) and total number (P = .004) of symptoms during the acute phase of infection. CONCLUSIONS: A greater number of symptoms during the acute infection was associated with a higher RPE during exercise in athletes at 10 to 28 days after SARS-CoV-2 infection. We recommend measuring RPE during the first exercise challenge after infection, as this may indicate disease severity and be valuable for tracking progress, recovery, and return to sport.

Do five screening tools identify the same number of runners who require pre-exercise medical clearance? SAFER XXXIV.

OBJECTIVES: Currently, there are five international screening tools that are recommended to identify individuals who require pre-exercise medical clearance to reduce the risk of medical encounters during exercise. Therefore, the aim was to determine the percentage of race entrants who are advised to obtain pre-exercise medical clearance and the observed agreement between these five different international pre-exercise medical screening tools. METHODS: In all, 76,654 race entrants from the Two Oceans Marathon (2012-2015) that completed an online pre-race screening questionnaire. Five pre-exercise medical screening tools (American Heart Association (AHA), pre-2015 American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM), post-2015 ACSM, Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q), and the European Association of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation (EACPR)) were retrospectively applied to all participants. The % (95%CI) race entrants requiring medical clearance identified by each tool and the observed agreement between tools (%) was determined. RESULTS: The % entrants requiring medical clearance varied from 6.7% to 33.9% between the five tools: EACPR (33.9%; 33.5-34.3); pre-2015 ACSM (33.9%; 33.5-34.3); PAR-Q (23.2%; 22.9-23.6); AHA (10.0%; 9.7-10.2); post-2015 ACSM (6.7%; 6.5-6.9). The observed agreement was highest between the pre-2015 ACSM and EACPR (35.4%), for pre-2015 ACSM and PAR-Q (24.8%), PAR-Q and EACPR (24.8%), and lowest between the post-2015 ACSM and AHA (4.1%). CONCLUSION: The percentage of race entrants identified to seek medical clearance (and observed agreement) varied considerably between pre-exercise medical screening tools. Further research should determine which tool has the best predictive ability in identifying those at higher risk of medical encounters during exercise.

Increased number of symptoms during the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection in athletes is associated with prolonged time to return to full sports performance-AWARE VIII.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to identify factors associated with prolonged time to return to full performance (RTFP) in athletes with recent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. METHODS: Prospective cohort study with cross sectional analysis. A total of 84 athletes with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection assessed at a coronavirus disease 2019 recovery clinic gave a history of: age, sex, type/level of sport, co-morbidities, pre-infection training hours, and 26 acute SARS-CoV-2 symptoms from 3 categories ("nose and throat", "chest and neck", and "whole body"/systemic). Data on days to RTFP were obtained by structured interviews. Factors associated with RTFP were: demographics, sport participation, history of co-morbidities, pre-infection training history, acute symptoms (type, number). Outcomes were: (a) days to RTFP (median, interquartile range (IQR)) in asymptomatic (n = 7) and symptomatic athletes (n = 77), and (b) hazard ratios (HRs; 95% confidence interval) for symptomatic athletes with vs. without a factor (univariate, multiple models). HR < 1 was predictive of higher percentage chance of prolonged RTFP. Significance was p < 0.05. RESULTS: Days to RTFP were 30 days (IQR: 23-40) for asymptomatic and 64 days (IQR: 42-91) for symptomatic participants (p > 0.05). Factors associated with prolonged RTFP (univariate models) were: females (HR = 0.57; p = 0.014), endurance athletes (HR = 0.41; p < 0.0001), co-morbidity number (HR = 0.75; p = 0.001), respiratory disease history (HR = 0.54; p = 0.026). In symptomatic athletes, prolonged RTFP (multiple models) was significantly associated with increased "chest and neck" (HR = 0.85; p = 0.017) and "nose and throat" (HR = 0.84; p = 0.013) symptoms, but the association was more profound between prolonged RFTP and increased total number of "all symptoms" (HR = 0.91; p = 0.001) and "whole body"/systemic (HR = 0.82; p = 0.007) symptoms. CONCLUSION: A larger number of total symptoms and specifically "whole body"/systemic symptoms during the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection in athletes is associated with prolonged RTFP.

A comparison of two pre-race medical screening tools in 5771 running race entrants-SAFER XXVIII.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if two pre-race screening tools (abbreviated tool of two open-ended pre-race medical screening questions [ABBR] vs. a full pre-race medical screening tool [FULL]) identify running race entrants at higher risk for medical encounters (MEs) on race day. METHODS: 5771 consenting race entrants completed both an ABBR and a FULL pre-race screening questionnaire for the 2018 Comrades Marathon (90 km). ABBR tool questions were (1) allergies, and (2) known medical conditions and/or prescription medication use. The FULL tool included multiple domains of questions for chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease (CVD), symptoms, risk factors, allergies and medication use. ABBR responses were manually coded and compared to the FULL tool. The prevalence (%: 95%CI), and the test for equality of prevalence of entrants identified by the ABBR vs. FULL tool is reported. RESULTS: The ABBR identified fewer entrants with allergies (ABBR = 7.9%; FULL = 10.4%: p = 0.0001) and medical conditions/medication use (ABBR = 8.9%; FULL = 27.4%: p = 0.0001). The ABBR tool significantly under-reported entrants with history of cardiovascular disease (CVD), CVD risk factors, other chronic diseases and prescription medication vs. the FULL tool (p = 0.0001). The ABBR tool identified fewer entrants in the "high" (ABBR = 3.4%; FULL = 12.4%) and "very high" risk (ABBR = 0.5%; FULL = 3.4%) categories for race day MEs (p = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: An abbreviated pre-race screening tool significantly under-estimates chronic medical conditions, allergies, and race entrants at higher risk for MEs on race day, compared with a full comprehensive screening tool. We recommend that a full pre-race medical screening tool be used to identify race entrants at risk for MEs.

Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome Is Associated With Chronic Disease and Allergies in 60 997 Distance Runner Race Entrants: SAFER XXX Study.

OBJECTIVE: Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is a common running-related injury. Independent risk factors associated with PFPS have not been described in a large cohort of distance runners. DESIGN: Descriptive, cross-sectional study. SETTING: 21.1 and 56 km Two Oceans Marathon races (2012-2015). PARTICIPANTS: 60 997 race entrants. ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS: Participants completed a compulsory prerace medical screening questionnaire (history of PFPS in the past 12 months, n = 362; no injury history, n = 60 635). Selected risk factors associated with a history of PFPS were explored using univariate & multivariate analyses: demographics, training/running variables, history of chronic diseases (composite chronic disease score), and any allergy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence ratios (PRs, 95% confidence intervals). RESULTS: Risk factors associated with PFPS (univariate analysis) were increased years of recreational running (PR = 1.09; P = 0.0107), older age (>50 years), and chronic diseases (PR > 2): gastrointestinal disease (PR = 5.06; P < 0.0001), cardiovascular disease (CVD) (PR = 3.28; P < 0.0001), nervous system/psychiatric disease (PR = 3.04; P < 0.0001), cancer (PR = 2.83; P = 0.0005), risk factors for CVD (PR = 2.42; P < 0.0001), symptoms of CVD (PR = 2.38; P = 0.0397), and respiratory disease (PR = 2.00; P < 0.0001). Independent risk factors (multivariate analysis) associated with PFPS (adjusted for age, sex, and race distance) were a higher chronic disease composite score (PR = 2.68 increased risk for every 2 additional chronic diseases; P < 0.0001) and a history of allergies (PR = 2.33; P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Novel independent risk factors associated with PFPS in distance runners are a history of multiple chronic diseases and a history of allergies. Identification of chronic diseases and allergies should be considered as part of the clinical assessment of a runner presenting with a history of PFPS.

Persistent Maternal Mental Health Disorders and Toddler Neurodevelopment at 18 Months: Longitudinal Follow-up of a Low-Income South African Cohort.

One of the biggest threats to early childhood development in Africa is poor maternal mental health. The present study reports on the relationships between clinical diagnoses of persistent maternal mental health disorders (at 3- and/or 6- and 18-month post-term age) and toddler neurodevelopment at 18 months of age. Eighty-three mother-toddler dyads from low socio-economic status settings in Cape Town, South Africa, were included. At the 3-, 6- and 18-month postnatal visits, clinician-administered structured diagnostic assessments were carried out according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-V (DSM-V) criteria. Toddler neurodevelopment at 18 months corrected age was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found between toddlers with exposure to persistent mood or psychotic disorders in the different BSID-III domains compared to toddlers with no exposure. Toddlers exposed to persistent comorbid anxiety and mood disorders scored significantly higher on the cognitive (p = 0.049), motor (p = 0.013) and language (p = 0.041) domains and attained significantly higher fine motor (p = 0.043) and gross motor (p = 0.041) scaled scores compared to toddlers with no maternal mental health disorder exposure. Future investigations should focus on the role of protective factors to explain the pathways through which maternal mental health status is associated with positive toddler neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Risk factors associated with gradual onset running-related injuries in 5770 ultramarathon race entrants - SAFER XXXII.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence available on contributing factors for gradual onset running-related injuries (GORRIs) in ultramarathon runners. The aim was to determine if selected risk factors were associated with a history of GORRIs in 90-km ultramarathon race entrants. METHODS: Descriptive cross-sectional study. GORRI and medical data using an online pre-race medical screening tool was collected from 5770 consenting race entrants from the 2018 90-km Comrades Marathon. Selected risk factors associated with 12-months history of GORRIs (age, sex, training, chronic diseases and allergies) were analyzed using a multiple model (Poisson regression). Prevalence and prevalence ratios (PR, 95% CIs) are reported. RESULTS: The overall 12-month prevalence of GORRIs was 11.6% (95% CI: 10.8-12.5) and this was higher in females versus males (PR=1.6; 1.4-1.9) (P<0.0001). Novel independent risk factors associated with a history of GORRIs were: history of chronic disease (PR=1.3; P=0.0063); history of allergies (PR=1.7 increased risk for every disease; P<0.0001); fewer training sessions/week (PR=0.8 decreased risk for every two additional training sessions per week; P=0.0005); and increased number of years as a recreational runner (PR=1.1 increased risk per 5 years of running; P=0.0158). CONCLUSIONS: There is a complex interaction between the internal and external risk factors associated with GORRIs in 90-km distance runners. These data can inform injury prevention programs targeted at subgroups of ultradistance runners.

The illness burden of gastrointestinal illness is two times higher if it is associated with systemic symptoms and signs: a cross-sectional study of the super rugby tournament over 5 seasons (102,738 player-days).

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal tract illness (GITill) in rugby players is underreported. The incidence, severity (% time loss illness, days lost per illness) and burden of GITill with/without systemic symptoms and signs in professional South African male rugby players during the Super Rugby tournament (2013-2017) are reported. METHODS: Team physicians completed daily illness logs of players (N.=537; 1141 player-seasons, 102738 player-days). The incidence (illnesses/1000 player-days, 95% CI), severity (% ≥1-day time-loss; days until return-to-play [DRTP]/single illness [mean: 95% CI]) and illness burden (IB: days lost to illness/1000 player-days) for the subcategories of GITill with/without systemic symptoms and signs (GITill+ss; GITill-ss), and gastroenteritis with/without systemic symptoms and signs (GE+ss; GE-ss) are reported. RESULTS: The incidence of all GITill was 1.0 (0.8-1.2). Incidence was similar for GITill+ss 0.6 (0.4-0.8) and GITill-ss 0.4 (0.3-0.5; P=0.0603). Incidence of GE+ss 0.6 (0.4-0.7) was higher than GE-ss 0.3 (0.2-0.4; P=0.0045). GITill caused ≥1-day time-loss in 62% of cases (GE+ss 66.7%; GE-ss 53.6%). GITill caused an average of 1.1 DRTP/single GITill, which was similar for subcategories. IB of GITill+ss was higher than GITill-ss (IB Ratio: 2.1 [1.1-3.9; P=0.0253]). IB for GITill+ss is 2 times higher than GITill-ss (IB Ratio: 2.1 [1.1-3.9]; P=0.0253); and GE+ss >3 times higher than GE-ss (IB Ratio: 3.0 [1.6-5.8]; P=0.0007). CONCLUSIONS: GITill accounted for 21.9% of all illnesses during the Super Rugby tournament, with >60% of GITill resulting in time-loss. The average DRTP/single illness was 1.1. GITill+ss and GE+ss resulted in higher IB. Targeted interventions to reduce the incidence and severity of GITill+ss and GE+ss should be developed.

A study protocol for a cluster randomized controlled trial to test the applicability of the South African diabetes prevention program in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Convincing evidence supports the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions in preventing the occurrence of diabetes in high-income countries, however little is known about appropriate interventions for use in African countries, where there are higher relative increases in diabetes prevalence. The South African Diabetes Prevention Programme (SA-DPP) was initiated with the aim of preventing or delaying the occurrence of diabetes among South Africans (SAs), through interventions, targeting lifestyle changes related to diet and physical activity. The purpose of the current project is to implement and evaluate the suitability and applicability of the SA-DPP developed and tailored in urban populations in the Western Cape Province, in peri-urban populations in the Eastern Cape Province of SA. METHODS: The SA-DPP, which is an cluster randomized control trial, will be implemented in adults aged 30-65 years residing in the OR Tambo district, Eastern Cape, SA. Participants will be recruited using self-selected sampling techniques and 24 clusters across peri-urban communities will be randomly allocated to participate in the lifestyle intervention, facilitated by non-professional health workers (NPHW). The diabetes risk screening will follow a two-staged approach, including the community-based screening, using the African diabetes risk score (ADRS), followed by a clinic-based risk status assessment by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to exclude unknown diabetes. The lifestyle-change objectives of the current programme relate to, 1) < 30% of total energy intake from fat; 2) < 10% of total energy intake from saturated fat; 3) > 15 g of fibre/1000 kcal; 4) > 4 h/week moderate level of physical activity; and 5) > 2% body mass index (BMI) reduction. DISCUSSION: The SA-DPP could represent a successful model for the prevention of diabetes and potentially other lifestyle-related diseases in SA and other countries in the region that are confronted with similar challenges. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PACTR202205591282906.

Tackling sport-related concussion: effectiveness of lowering the maximum legal height of the tackle in amateur male rugby - a cross-sectional analytical study.

OBJECTIVE: Rugby union ('rugby') is popular globally, with most of its participants being amateur. Concern regarding sport-related concussion (SRC) sustained during rugby is increasing. SRC occurs most frequently in the tackle, yet few interventions have aimed to mitigate this risk factor. This study investigated the influence of a lowered legal tackle height on SRC incidence in amateur rugby. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analytical study: 2018 (control-standard tackle height) and 2019 (intervention-lowered legal tackle height) seasons. SETTING: South African collegiate student rugby competition. PARTICIPANTS: Between 800 and 900 male amateur student players (age: 20±1.6 years) in each year. INTERVENTION: Maximum legal tackle height lowered from line of the shoulder on the ball carrier to the line of the armpit. OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of overall (medical attention) and time-loss (≥1 day lost) injuries, head injuries and SRCs in 2018 and 2019 (dependent variables); events associated with injury incidents (independent variables). RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference in incidences of time-loss injuries (IRR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.6 to 1.1; p=0.13), head injuries (IRR: 0.83; 95% CI: 0.5 to 1.3; p=0.42) and SRC (IRR: 0.69; 95% CI: 0.4 to 1.2; p=0.20). In 2018 and 2019, most time-loss head injuries (57%, n=43) and SRCs (55%, n=26) occurred during the tackle. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a trend towards reducing injuries, head injuries and SRC, lowering maximum legal tackle height to armpit level did not change SRC incidence in this amateur male rugby cohort. Most time-loss head injuries and SRCs occurred during the tackle. Further tackle-related interventions to reduce SRC incidence require investigation.

Pre-race self-reported medical conditions and allergies in 133 641 Comrades ultramarathon (90km) runners - SAFER XXIII.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of self-reported pre-race chronic medical conditions and allergies in ultramarathon race entrants and to explore if these are associated with an increased risk of race-day medical encounters (MEs). METHODS: Data from two voluntary open-ended pre-race medical screening questions (Q1 - history of allergies; Q2 - history of chronic medical conditions/prescription medication use) were collected in 133641 Comrades Marathon race entrants (2014-2019). Race-day ME data collected prospectively over 6 years are reported as incidence (per 1000 starters) and incidence ratios (IR: 95%CI's). RESULTS: Pre-race medical screening questions identified race entrants with a history of chronic medical conditions and/or prescription medication use (6.9%) and allergies (7.4%). The % entrants with risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) was 30% and being older (>45 years) or male (27.5%) were the most frequent CVD risk factors. 0.3% of entrants reported existing CVD. The overall incidence of MEs was 20/1000 race starters. MEs were significantly higher in race entrants reporting a 'yes' to Q1 (allergies) (IR = 1.3; 1.1-1.5) (p = 0.014) or Q2 (chronic medical conditions and/or prescription medication use) (IR = 1.3; 1.1-1.5) (p = 0.0006). CONCLUSIONS: Voluntary completion of two open-ended questions identified chronic medical conditions and/or prescription medication use in 6.9% and allergies in 7.4% of ultramarathon race entrants. This is lower than that reported for other races that implemented compulsory completion of a more comprehensive pre-screening questionnaire. Despite potential under-reporting, a pre-race self-reported history of chronic medical conditions and allergies was associated with a higher risk of race-day MEs.

Chronic diseases and allergies are risk factors predictive of a history of Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (MTSS) in distance runners: SAFER study XXIV.

BACKGROUND: Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (MTSS) is one of the most common causes of exercise-associated lower leg pain in distance runners. AIM: To identify risk factors predictive of a history of MTSS in distance runners entering the Two Oceans Marathon races (21.1 km and 56 km). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: 2012 to 2015 Two Oceans Marathon races (21.1 km and 56 km). PARTICIPANTS: Consenting race entrants. METHODS: 106,743 race entrants completed an online pre-race medical screening questionnaire. 76,654 consenting runners (71.8%) were studied. 558 verified MTSS injuries were reported in the previous 12 months. Risk factors predictive of a history of MTSS were explored using uni - & multivariate analyses: demographics (race distance, sex, and age groups), training/racing history, history of chronic diseases, allergies, and medication use. RESULTS: Independent risk factors predictive of a history of MTSS (adjusted for sex, age group, and race distance) were a higher chronic disease composite score (PR = 3.1 times increase risk for every two additional chronic diseases; p < 0.0001) and a history of allergies (PR = 1.9; p < 0.0001). Chronic diseases (PR > 2) predictive of a history of MTSS were: symptoms of CVD (PR = 4.2; p < 0.0001); GIT disease (PR = 3.3; p < 0.0001); kidney/bladder disease (PR = 3.3; p < 0.0001); nervous system/psychiatric disease (PR = 3.2; p < 0.0001); respiratory disease (PR = 2.9; p < 0.0001) a history of CVD (PR = 2.9; p < 0.0001); and risk factors of CVD (PR = 2.4; p < 0.0001) (univariate analysis). Average running speed was associated with higher risk of MTSS. CONCLUSION: Novel independent risk factors predictive of a history of MTSS in distance runners (56 km, 21.1 km) were multiple chronic diseases and a history of allergies. Identifying athletes at higher risk for MTSS can guide healthcare professionals in their prevention and rehabilitation efforts.

Factors associated with patellofemoral pain in recreational road cyclists: A cross-sectional study in 59953 cyclists - SAFER XXXIII.

OBJECTIVE: Patellofemoral pain (PFP) is a common cycling-related injury, and independent factors need to be identified to enable effective injury prevention strategies. We aim to determine factors associated with PFP in cyclists entering mass community-based events. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: 2016-2020 Cape Town Cycle Tour. PARTICIPANTS: Consenting race entrants. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: 62758 consenting race entrants completed a pre-race medical questionnaire, and 323 reported PFP. Selected factors associated with PFP (demographics, cycling experience and training, chronic disease history) were explored using multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Prevalence ratio (PR) of PFP was similar for sex and age groups. Independent factors associated with PFP (adjusted for sex and age) were history of chronic disease [Composite Chronic Disease Score (0-10)(PR = 2.0, p < 0.0001) and any allergies (PR = 2.0, p < 0.0001)]. CONCLUSION: A history of chronic diseases and allergies is associated with PFP in cyclists. Practical clinical recommendations are: 1) that prevention programs for PFP be considered when cycling is prescribed as a physical activity intervention for patients with chronic disease, and 2) that older cyclists presenting with PFP be assessed for the presence of risk factors or existing chronic disease.

Males, Older Age, Increased Training, Chronic Diseases, Allergies, and History of Injury Are Independent Risk Factors Associated With a History of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramping in Distance Runners in 76 654 Race Entrants - SAFER XXIX.

OBJECTIVE: To determine independent risk factors associated with a history of exercise-associated muscle cramps (hEAMCs) in distance runner race entrants in a community-based mass participation event. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: 2012 to 2015, Two Oceans marathon races (21.1 and 56 km), South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy six thousand six hundred fifty-four consenting race entrants. ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS: Entrants completed an online prerace medical screening questionnaire as part of the entry process. In a multiple model, sex, age, training variables, history of chronic disease, allergies, and running injuries were included as potential factors associated with hEAMC in 21.1 and 56 km entrants. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence (%) and prevalence ratios (PRs, 95% confidence intervals) are reported. RESULTS: Men ( P < 0.0001) and older age (>40 years, P < 0.0001) were significantly associated with hEAMC. Therefore, the model was adjusted for sex and age group and run separately for 21.1- and 56-km entrants. Specific independent risk factors associated with hEAMC in 21.1- and 56-km entrants were: a history of chronic diseases (21.1 km: PR = 1.9; 56 km: PR = 1.6; P < 0.0001), running injury in the last 12 months (21.1 km: PR = 1.7; 56 km: PR = 1.4; P < 0.0001), history of allergies (21.1 km: PR = 1.4; 56 km: PR = 1.2; P < 0.0001), and various training variables (PR = 1.0-1.1). CONCLUSION: In 21.1- and 56-km race entrants, independent risk factors associated with hEAMC were men, older age, longer race distances, training variables, chronic diseases, history of allergies, and history of a running injury in the past 12 months.