Language trees support the express-train sequence of Austronesian expansion.

Languages, like molecules, document evolutionary history. Darwin observed that evolutionary change in languages greatly resembled the processes of biological evolution: inheritance from a common ancestor and convergent evolution operate in both. Despite many suggestions, few attempts have been made to apply the phylogenetic methods used in biology to linguistic data. Here we report a parsimony analysis of a large language data set. We use this analysis to test competing hypotheses--the "express-train" and the "entangled-bank" models--for the colonization of the Pacific by Austronesian-speaking peoples. The parsimony analysis of a matrix of 77 Austronesian languages with 5,185 lexical items produced a single most-parsimonious tree. The express-train model was converted into an ordered geographical character and mapped onto the language tree. We found that the topology of the language tree was highly compatible with the express-train model.

Interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour by adolescents with head injury: a group analysis.

The aim of the present study was to determine the ability of adolescents with a head injury to interpret and comprehend linguistic humour. Nine adolescents with head injury aged between 12 years 1 month and 15 years 4 months, and nine individually matched adolescents aged between 12 years 1 month and 16 years 1 month were administered a humour test, a standard language battery, the CELF-3, and the Self-Esteem Index. The test of humour abilities required each subject to recognize and select an explanation from a group of three, as to what made each item funny. Items were based on morphological, semantic and syntactic humour elements. Comparison at a group level demonstrated that adolescents with head injury performed significantly poorer in the interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour than a group of individually matched peers. Contrary to expectations, a relationship between the level of self-esteem and humour comprehension did not exist. The findings of the present study suggest that further research into the effects of head injury on linguistic humour in adolescents is warranted, particularly from a case-by-case perspective.

Interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour by adolescents with head injury: a case-by-case analysis.

The aim of the present study was to examine the linguistic humour abilities of a group of adolescents with head injury on a case-by-case basis. Nine adolescents with head injury aged between 12 years 1 month and 15 years 4 months, and nine individually matched adolescents aged between 12 years 1 month and 16 years 1 month were administered a humour test, a standard language battery, the CELF-3, and the Self-Esteem Index. The test of humour abilities required each subject to recognize and select an explanation from a group of three, as to what made each item funny. Items were based on morphological, semantic and syntactic humour elements. Examination of the individual profiles of each subject with head injury illustrated the existence of variability between subjects representing three language abilities in the presence of mild head injury; and impaired humour ability with concurrent language skills that are within normal limits. This third pattern supports previous studies, which have documented the occurrence of high-level language impairment while language abilities are intact. The present study emphasized the importance of investigating the abilities of individuals who have had a head injury in childhood, within a developmental framework. This perspective serves to highlight the context of contributing aspects that impact on future language development and recovery of injury, such as the time that the injury occurred in a child's development, in addition to injury severity and main trends: reduced humour abilities together with below average language skills; intact humour and the time that has elapsed post-injury.

High-level linguistic disturbances subsequent to childhood closed head injury.

High-level language functioning was assessed in a group of 11 children with severe closed head injury (CHI). Performance was examined on measures of figurative language, oral expression, inferencing, and interpretation of ambiguous sentences, and was compared with that of a control group matched for age, gender, and handedness. The children with CHI demonstrated inferior performance on the oral expression, ambiguous sentences, and figurative language tests; however, performance on the inferencing task appeared intact. These findings are discussed with respect to the underlying nature of the observed impairments. Both linguistic and cognitive factors are considered. It is concluded that a complex interaction of cognitive and linguistic impairments experienced by children with CHI may underlie the performance deficits identified in the current study.

Language performance of severely closed head injured children.

The language functioning of a group of children who had sustained a severe closed head injury (CHI) was evaluated. The subjects were administered a battery of language assessments including measures of syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Performance of the experimental group was compared with that of a control group matched for age and sex. Results indicated that all areas of language competence assessed (syntax, semantics, pragmatics) appeared to be compromised by the childhood CHI. The findings of this study are considered in light of the implications for the existence of different language components (syntax, semantics, pragmatics) as opposed to a unified concept of language. Also considered is the evidence of a specific linguistic impairment in the childhood CHI population as opposed to a more generalized cognitive decline expressed as an overall decrease in performance across all domains of language skill.

Severe closed-head injury in childhood: linguistic outcomes into adulthood.

The language functioning of a group of adults who had sustained a severe closed-head injury in childhood was evaluated. The subjects were administered a battery of language assessments including measures of syntax, semantics and pragmatics, as well as a measure of metalinguistic ability. Performance of the experimental group was compared with that of a control group matched for age, sex and educational level. Results indicated that all areas of language competence assessed (syntax, semantics, pragmatics) appeared to be compromised by the childhood closed-head injury.

Whatever happened after the 'return from silence'?

A case is presented of a child who, following unexpected rapid recovery of functional communication skills 9 months post-severe closed head injury, continued to progress in speech and language skills even 4 years post-injury. Although the child did not recover to premorbid levels of functioning, her recovery over such a protracted period proved quite remarkable. The case is considered in the light of recent findings on the recovery of linguistic skills subsequent to childhood closed head injury.

The evaluation of intervention programmes for communicatively impaired elderly people.

A study is described which examined the efficacy of group intervention programmes using trained volunteers as agents of intervention with elderly nursing home residents with communication impairments. A series of intervention programmes, which consisted of six weekly sessions, was designed. Sessions were a combination of information giving, discussion and practical components where residents could practise newly acquired skills. Sessions covered a number of core components--the communication process, comprehension, expression and pragmatics, as well as information that was specific to the communication impairment. Volunteers were trained to administer the programme. Four groups of communicatively impaired elderly people were included in the study--a group of hearing-impaired residents, those with communication impairment subsequent to Parkinson's disease, those with communication impairment subsequent to cerebrovascular accident and those in varying stages of dementia. Results indicated that, although the residents studied responded very individually to the intervention strategies, with several subjects failing to demonstrate any gains in communicative competence from pre- to post-intervention, positive gains in communication skills and self-management of communicative impairment were observed for a number of subjects. Complicating factors such as general health and well-being are considered as uncontrollable variables in the measurement of performance in the elderly.

Language abilities of mildly closed head injured (CHI) children 10 years post-injury.

The language functioning of a group of 14 children who had sustained a mild closed head injury (CHI) at least 10 years previously was assessed. The subjects were administered a battery of language assessments including an overall language test, and specific language skills assessments. Performance of the head-injured group was compared with that of a group of non-neurologically impaired accident victims matched for age, sex and educational level. Overall language performance of the experimental group did not differ significantly from the controls.

Closed-head-injured children's performance on narrative tasks.

Stories were elicited from a group of 20 closed-head-injured children. Story grammar and intersentential cohesion were examined. Performance of the head-injured children was compared to that of a group of nonneurologically impaired accident victims matched for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. No significant differences were found between the performance of the closed-head-injured children and the matched controls on any of the measures of narrative ability applied to the elicited narratives.

Linguistic status following closed head injury in children: a follow-up study.

The speech and language functioning of a group of 20 children (aged 8-17) who had sustained a closed head injury at least 12 months previously was assessed with the purpose of developing a comprehensive profile of the type and severity of the long-term speech/language disorders exhibited by this group. The same group of subjects was then re-evaluated 12 months after the initial testing to monitor progress of the closed head-injured group in relation to a group of non-neurologically impaired controls. The subjects were administered a battery of speech/language assessments including articulation/phonological assessment; oromotor assessment; overall language test; and specific language skills assessments. Initial and re-test performance of the head-injured group was compared to that of a group of non-neurologically impaired accident victims matched for age, sex and socioeconomic status. Comparison within the head-injured group of test and re-test performance was also carried out. Overall language performance scores of the head-injured group were found to be consistently significantly lower than achieved by the control group at both initial and re-test stages. Performance of the head-injured group had, however, improved significantly over the 12-month period.

Unexpected recovery of functional communication following a prolonged period of mutism post-head injury.

A case is presented of a seven-year-old female who showed an unexpected recovery of functional communication skills following a prolonged period of traumatic mutism subsequent to a severe closed head injury. The patient initially presented as comatose. A period of mutism subsequent to the coma extended for ten months. Following this protracted period of mutism the child demonstrated rapid and unexpected recovery of functional communication skills, despite the persistence of higher level language deficits. The findings of a neurological assessment, neuroradiological assessment and battery of speech/language tests are described. The present case is discussed in light of the existing literature on recovery from paediatric head trauma.

Performance of closed head-injured children on a naming task.

The naming abilities of a group of 20 children (aged 8-16) who had sustained a closed head injury (CHI) at least 12 months previously were assessed with the purpose of examining the long-term effect of CHI on children's naming ability. Performance of the CHI group on the Boston Naming Test was compared to that of a group of non-neurologically impaired accident victims matched for age, sex and socioeconomic status. A detailed examination of the types of naming errors exhibited by the CHI children was also carried out. Boston Naming Test scores of the CHI group were found to be significantly lower than those achieved by the control group. The error pattern demonstrated by the CHI group, however, mimicked that of the control group.

Influencing prescribing behavior by adapting computerized order-entry pathways.

A program is described in which informational text was inserted into a computerized drug order-entry pathway to alter prescribing patterns and contain costs. In April 1986 the pharmacy and therapeutics committee at a 700-bed teaching hospital recommended that cefonicid be used instead of cefuroxime to treat adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia in which infection with Haemophilus influenzae or gram-negative enteric rods was suspected; substantial cost savings were projected. A paragraph recommending cefonicid was inserted into the cefuroxime order-entry screen in November 1986. In February 1987 the screen was further modified to allow the physician to select the cefonicid alternative without returning to the drug index. A final change was made in November 1987 to allow the physician to select ampicillin or erythromycin directly from the cefuroxime screen as well. The cost and relative use of cefonicid and cefuroxime were examined in specific patients with pneumonia--those assigned to diagnosis-related group 89--for whom either drug was prescribed. From January 1986 to December 1987, the percentage of these patients who were prescribed cefuroxime decreased from 100% to 22%, while the percentage of patients receiving cefonicid increased from 0% to 78%. The average acquisition cost of the two antibiotics per patient decreased from $123 to $48. Although other variables may have affected prescribing patterns and this method of drug therapy intervention has some disadvantages, such as the need for physician cooperation, the concept warrants further attention. Adaptation of computerized order-entry pathways may increase the ability of pharmacy to influence prescribing behavior and control costs.

Long-term speech and language disorders subsequent to closed head injury in children.

The speech and language functioning of a group of 20 children (aged 8-16) who had sustained a closed head injury at least 12 months previously were assessed with the purpose of developing a comprehensive profile of the type and severity of the long-term speech/language disorders exhibited by this group. The subjects were administered a battery of speech/language assessments including an articulation/phonological assessment; oromotor assessment; overall language test and specific language skills assessments. Performance of the head-injured group was compared to that of a group of non-neurologically impaired accident victims matched for age, sex and socioeconomic status. Overall language performance scores of the head-injured group were found to be significantly lower than achieved by the control group.