Coronavirus infections and deaths by poverty status: The effects of social distancing.

We study the spread of COVID-19 infections and deaths by county poverty level in the US. In the beginning of the pandemic, counties with either very low poverty levels or very high poverty levels reported the highest numbers of cases. A U-shaped relationship prevails for counties with high population density while among counties with low population density, only poorer counties report high incidence rates of COVID-19. Second, we discuss the pattern of infections spreading from higher to lower income counties. Third, we show that stay-at-home mandates caused significantly higher reductions in mobility in high income counties that experienced adverse weather shocks than counties that did not. These effects are not present in counties with high poverty rates. Using weather shocks in combination with stay-at-home mandates as an instrument for social distancing, we find that measures taken to promote social distancing helped curb infections in high income counties but not in low income counties. These results have important policy implications for containing the spread of infectious diseases in the future.

Optimized light-inducible transcription in mammalian cells using Flavin Kelch-repeat F-box1/GIGANTEA and CRY2/CIB1.

Light-inducible systems allow spatiotemporal control of a variety of biological activities. Here, we report newly optimized optogenetic tools to induce transcription with light in mammalian cells, using the Arabidopsis photoreceptor Flavin Kelch-repeat F-box 1 (FKF1) and its binding partner GIGANTEA (GI) as well as CRY2/CIB1. By combining the mutagenesis of FKF1 with the optimization of a split FKF1/GI dimerized Gal4-VP16 transcriptional system, we identified constructs enabling significantly improved light-triggered transcriptional induction. In addition, we have improved the CRY2/CIB1-based light-inducible transcription with split construct optimization. The improvements regarding the FKF1/GI- and CRY2/CIB1-based systems will be widely applicable for the light-dependent control of transcription in mammalian cells.

Long-Term Optical Access to an Estimated One Million Neurons in the Live Mouse Cortex.

A major technological goal in neuroscience is to enable the interrogation of individual cells across the live brain. By creating a curved glass replacement to the dorsal cranium and surgical methods for its installation, we developed a chronic mouse preparation providing optical access to an estimated 800,000-1,100,000 individual neurons across the dorsal surface of neocortex. Post-surgical histological studies revealed comparable glial activation as in control mice. In behaving mice expressing a Ca2+ indicator in cortical pyramidal neurons, we performed Ca2+ imaging across neocortex using an epi-fluorescence macroscope and estimated that 25,000-50,000 individual neurons were accessible per mouse across multiple focal planes. Two-photon microscopy revealed dendritic morphologies throughout neocortex, allowed time-lapse imaging of individual cells, and yielded estimates of >1 million accessible neurons per mouse by serial tiling. This approach supports a variety of optical techniques and enables studies of cells across >30 neocortical areas in behaving mice.

The Determinants of Federal and State Enforcement of Workplace Safety Regulations: OSHA Inspections 1990-2010.

We explore the determinants of inspection outcomes across 1.6 million Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) audits from 1990 through 2010. We find that discretion in enforcement differs in state and federally conducted inspections. State agencies are more sensitive to local economic conditions, finding fewer standard violations and fewer serious violations as unemployment increases. Larger companies receive greater lenience in multiple dimensions. Inspector issued fines and final fines, after negotiated reductions, are both smaller during Republican presidencies. Quantile regression analysis reveals that Presidential and Congressional party affiliations have their greatest impact on the largest negotiated reductions in fines.

Time-lapse imaging of disease progression in deep brain areas using fluorescence microendoscopy.

The combination of intravital microscopy and animal models of disease has propelled studies of disease mechanisms and treatments. However, many disorders afflict tissues inaccessible to light microscopy in live subjects. Here we introduce cellular-level time-lapse imaging deep within the live mammalian brain by one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy over multiple weeks. Bilateral imaging sites allowed longitudinal comparisons within individual subjects, including of normal and diseased tissues. Using this approach, we tracked CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neuron dendrites in adult mice, revealing these dendrites' extreme stability and rare examples of their structural alterations. To illustrate disease studies, we tracked deep lying gliomas by observing tumor growth, visualizing three-dimensional vasculature structure and determining microcirculatory speeds. Average erythrocyte speeds in gliomas declined markedly as the disease advanced, notwithstanding significant increases in capillary diameters. Time-lapse microendoscopy will be applicable to studies of numerous disorders, including neurovascular, neurological, cancerous and trauma-induced conditions.

In vivo brain imaging using a portable 2.9 g two-photon microscope based on a microelectromechanical systems scanning mirror.

We present a two-photon microscope that is approximately 2.9 g in mass and 2.0 x 1.9 x 1.1 cm(3) in size and based on a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) laser-scanning mirror. The microscope has a focusing motor and a micro-optical assembly composed of four gradient refractive index lenses and a dichroic microprism. Fluorescence is captured without the detected emissions reflecting off the MEMS mirror, by use of separate optical fibers for fluorescence collection and delivery of ultrashort excitation pulses. Using this microscope we imaged neocortical microvasculature and tracked the flow of erythrocytes in live mice.

High-speed, miniaturized fluorescence microscopy in freely moving mice.

A central goal in biomedicine is to explain organismic behavior in terms of causal cellular processes. However, concurrent observation of mammalian behavior and underlying cellular dynamics has been a longstanding challenge. We describe a miniaturized (1.1 g mass) epifluorescence microscope for cellular-level brain imaging in freely moving mice, and its application to imaging microcirculation and neuronal Ca(2+) dynamics.

In vivo imaging of mammalian cochlear blood flow using fluorescence microendoscopy.

AIMS: We sought to develop techniques for visualizing cochlear blood flow in live mammalian subjects using fluorescence microendoscopy. BACKGROUND: Inner ear microcirculation appears to be intimately involved in cochlear function. Blood velocity measurements suggest that intense sounds can alter cochlear blood flow. Disruption of cochlear blood flow may be a significant cause of hearing impairment, including sudden sensorineural hearing loss. However, inability to image cochlear blood flow in a nondestructive manner has limited investigation of the role of inner ear microcirculation in hearing function. Present techniques for imaging cochlear microcirculation using intravital light microscopy involve extensive perturbations to cochlear structure, precluding application in human patients. The few previous endoscopy studies of the cochlea have suffered from optical resolution insufficient for visualizing cochlear microvasculature. Fluorescence microendoscopy is an emerging minimally invasive imaging modality that provides micron-scale resolution in tissues inaccessible to light microscopy. In this article, we describe the use of fluorescence microendoscopy in live guinea pigs to image capillary blood flow and movements of individual red blood cells within the basal turn of the cochlea. METHODS: We anesthetized eight adult guinea pigs and accessed the inner ear through the mastoid bulla. After intravenous injection of fluorescein dye, we made a limited cochleostomy and introduced a compound doublet gradient refractive index endoscope probe 1 mm in diameter into the inner ear. We then imaged cochlear blood flow within individual vessels in an epifluorescence configuration using one-photon fluorescence microendoscopy. RESULTS: We observed single red blood cells passing through individual capillaries in several cochlear structures, including the round window membrane, spiral ligament, osseous spiral lamina, and basilar membrane. Blood flow velocities within inner ear capillaries varied widely, with observed speeds reaching up to approximately 500 microm/s. CONCLUSION: Fluorescence microendoscopy permits visualization of cochlear microcirculation with micron-scale optical resolution and determination of blood flow velocities through analysis of video sequences.

Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging.

Optical fibers guide light between separate locations and enable new types of fluorescence imaging. Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging systems include portable handheld microscopes, flexible endoscopes well suited for imaging within hollow tissue cavities and microendoscopes that allow minimally invasive high-resolution imaging deep within tissue. A challenge in the creation of such devices is the design and integration of miniaturized optical and mechanical components. Until recently, fiber-based fluorescence imaging was mainly limited to epifluorescence and scanning confocal modalities. Two new classes of photonic crystal fiber facilitate ultrashort pulse delivery for fiber-optic two-photon fluorescence imaging. An upcoming generation of fluorescence imaging devices will be based on microfabricated device components.

In vivo brain imaging using a portable 3.9 gram two-photon fluorescence microendoscope.

We introduce a compact two-photon fluorescence microendoscope based on a compound gradient refractive index endoscope probe, a DC micromotor for remote adjustment of the image plane, and a flexible photonic bandgap fiber for near distortion-free delivery of ultrashort excitation pulses. The imaging head has a mass of only 3.9 g and provides micrometer-scale resolution. We used portable two-photon microendoscopy to visualize hippocampal blood vessels in the brains of live mice.

Fiber optic in vivo imaging in the mammalian nervous system.

The compact size, mechanical flexibility, and growing functionality of optical fiber and fiber optic devices are enabling several new modalities for imaging the mammalian nervous system in vivo. Fluorescence microendoscopy is a minimally invasive fiber modality that provides cellular resolution in deep brain areas. Diffuse optical tomography is a non-invasive modality that uses assemblies of fiber optic emitters and detectors on the cranium for volumetric imaging of brain activation. Optical coherence tomography is a sensitive interferometric imaging technique that can be implemented in a variety of fiber based formats and that might allow intrinsic optical detection of brain activity at a high resolution. Miniaturized fiber optic microscopy permits cellular level imaging in the brains of behaving animals. Together, these modalities will enable new uses of imaging in the intact nervous system for both research and clinical applications.

In vivo mammalian brain imaging using one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy.

One of the major limitations in the current set of techniques available to neuroscientists is a dearth of methods for imaging individual cells deep within the brains of live animals. To overcome this limitation, we developed two forms of minimally invasive fluorescence microendoscopy and tested their abilities to image cells in vivo. Both one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy are based on compound gradient refractive index (GRIN) lenses that are 350-1,000 microm in diameter and provide micron-scale resolution. One-photon microendoscopy allows full-frame images to be viewed by eye or with a camera, and is well suited to fast frame-rate imaging. Two-photon microendoscopy is a laser-scanning modality that provides optical sectioning deep within tissue. Using in vivo microendoscopy we acquired video-rate movies of thalamic and CA1 hippocampal red blood cell dynamics and still-frame images of CA1 neurons and dendrites in anesthetized rats and mice. Microendoscopy will help meet the growing demand for in vivo cellular imaging created by the rapid emergence of new synthetic and genetically encoded fluorophores that can be used to label specific brain areas or cell classes.

Multiphoton endoscopy.

Despite widespread use of multiphoton fluorescence microscopy, development of endoscopes for nonlinear optical imaging has been stymied by the degradation of ultrashort excitation pulses that occurs within optical fiber as a result of the combined effects of group-velocity dispersion and self-phase modulation. We introduce microendoscopes (350-1000 microm in diameter) based on gradient-index microlenses that effectively eliminate self-phase modulation within the endoscope. Laser-scanning multiphoton fluorescence endoscopy exhibits micrometer-scale resolution. We used multiphoton endoscopes to image fluorescently labeled neurons and dendrites.