High-sensitivity elemental ionization for quantitative detection of halogenated compounds.

The rising importance of organohalogens in environmental, pharmaceutical, and biological applications has drawn attention to analysis of these compounds in recent years. Elemental mass spectrometry (MS) is particularly advantageous in this regard because of its ability to quantify without compound-specific standards. However, low sensitivity of conventional elemental MS for halogens has hampered applications of this powerful method in organohalogen analyses. To this end, we have developed a high-sensitivity elemental ion source compatible with widely available atmospheric-sampling mass spectrometers. We utilize a helium-oxygen plasma for atomization followed by negative ion formation in plasma afterglow, a configuration termed as plasma-assisted reaction chemical ionization (PARCI). The effect of oxygen on in-plasma and afterglow reactions is investigated, leading to fundamental understanding of ion generation processes as well as optimized operating conditions. Coupled to a gas chromatograph, PARCI shows constant ionization efficiency for F, Cl, and Br regardless of the chemical structure of the compounds. Negative ionization in the afterglow improves halide ion formation efficiency and eliminates isobaric interferences, offering sub-picogram elemental detection for F, Cl, and Br using low-resolution MS. Notably, the detection limit for F is about one order of magnitude better than other elemental MS techniques. The high sensitivity and facile adoptability of PARCI pave the way for combined elemental-molecular characterization, a comprehensive analytical scheme for rapid identification and quantification of organohalogens.

Gas chromatography plasma-assisted reaction chemical ionization mass spectrometry for quantitative detection of bromine in organic compounds.

We have recently introduced plasma-assisted reaction chemical ionization mass spectrometry (PARCI-MS) for elemental analysis of halogens in organic compounds. Here, we utilize gas chromatography (GC) coupled to PARCI-MS to investigate the mechanism of Br(-) ion generation from organobromines and to evaluate analytical performance of PARCI for organobromine analysis. Bromine atoms in compounds eluting from GC are converted to HBr in a low-pressure microwave induced helium plasma with trace amounts of hydrogen added as a reaction gas. Ionization is achieved by introducing nitrogen into the afterglow region of the plasma, liberating electrons via penning ionization and leading to formation of negative ions. We demonstrate that N2 largely affects the ionization process, whereas H2 affects both the ionization process and in-plasma reactions. Our investigations also suggest that dissociative electron capture is the main ionization route for formation of Br(-) ions. Importantly, GC-PARCI-MS shows a uniform response factor for bromine across brominated compounds of drastically different chemical structures, confirming PARCI's ability to quantify organobromines in the absence of compound-specific standards. Over 3 orders of magnitude linear dynamic range is demonstrated for bromine quantification. We report a detection limit of 29 fg of bromine on-column, ~4-fold better than inductively coupled plasma-MS.

Plasma-assisted reaction chemical ionization for elemental mass spectrometry of organohalogens.

We present plasma-assisted reaction chemical ionization (PARCI) for elemental analysis of halogens in organic compounds. Organohalogens are broken down to simple halogen-containing molecules (e.g., HBr) in a helium microwave-induced plasma followed by negative mode chemical ionization (CI) in the afterglow region. The reagent ions for CI originate from penning ionization of gases (e.g., N2) introduced into the afterglow region. The performance of PARCI-mass spectrometry (MS) is evaluated using flow injection analyses of organobromines, demonstrating 5-8 times better sensitivities compared with inductively coupled plasma MS. We show that compound-dependent sensitivities in PARCI-MS mainly arise from sample introduction biases.

Incision of trivalent chromium [Cr(III)]-induced DNA damage by Bacillus caldotenax UvrABC endonuclease.

Some hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]-containing compounds are lung carcinogens. Once within cells, Cr(VI) is reduced to trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] which displays an affinity for both DNA bases and the phosphate backbone. A diverse array of genetic lesions is produced by Cr including Cr-DNA monoadducts, DNA interstrand crosslinks (ICLs), DNA-Cr-protein crosslinks (DPCs), abasic sites, DNA strand breaks and oxidized bases. Despite the large amount of information available on the genotoxicity of Cr, little is known regarding the molecular mechanisms involved in the removal of these lesions from damaged DNA. Recent work indicates that nucleotide excision repair (NER) is involved in the processing of Cr-DNA adducts in human and rodent cells. In order to better understand this process at the molecular level and begin to identify the Cr-DNA adducts processed by NER, the incision of CrCl(3) [Cr(III)]-damaged plasmid DNA was studied using a thermal-resistant UvrABC NER endonuclease from Bacillus caldotenax (Bca). Treatment of plasmid DNA with Cr(III) (as CrCl(3)) increased DNA binding as a function of dose. For example, at a Cr(III) concentration of 1 microM we observed approximately 2 Cr(III)-DNA adducts per plasmid. At this same concentration of Cr(III) we found that approximately 17% of the plasmid DNA contained ICLs ( approximately 0.2 ICLs/plasmid). When plasmid DNA treated with Cr(III) (1 microM) was incubated with Bca UvrABC we observed approximately 0.8 incisions/plasmid. The formation of endonuclease IV-sensitive abasic lesions or Fpg-sensitive oxidized DNA bases was not detected suggesting that the incision of Cr(III)-damaged plasmid DNA by UvrABC was not related to the generation of oxidized DNA damage. Taken together, our data suggest that a sub-fraction of Cr(III)-DNA adducts is recognized and processed by the prokaryotic NER machinery and that ICLs are not necessarily the sole lesions generated by Cr(III) that are substrates for NER.

Chemical reaction interface mass spectrometry with high efficiency nebulization.

A high efficiency nebulizer (HEN) coupled to a heated spray chamber and a membrane desolvator is used for liquid sample introduction in chemical reaction interface mass spectrometry (CRIMS). Compared to the conventional thermospray nebulizer operated at solvent flow rate of 1 mL/min, the HEN provides small droplets at lower flow rates (10-100 microL/min), improving the desolvation and analyte transport efficiency. As a result, the sensitivity for carbon detection by CRIMS is improved by a factor of 4. The new arrangement offers an easy-to-use and robust interface, facilitating the availability of a variety of liquid chromatographic techniques to the CRIMS. Separation and detection of labeled peptides in a mixture of unlabeled biopolymers is illustrated at a solvent flow rate of 45 microL/min as an example of new possibilities offered by the improved liquid introduction interface.

In situ visualization and characterization of aerosol droplets in an inductively coupled plasma.

Laser-scattering techniques are utilized for the first time to visualize the aerosol droplets in an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) torch from the nebulizer tip to the site of analytical measurements. The resulting images provide key information about the spatial distribution of the aerosol introduced by direct injection and conventional sample introduction devices: (1) a direct injection high-efficiency nebulizer (DIHEN); (2) a large-bore DIHEN; and (3) a MicroFlow PFA nebulizer with a PFA Scott-type spray chamber. Moreover, particle image velocimetry is used to study the in situ behavior of the aerosol before interaction with the plasma, while the individual surviving droplets are explored by particle tracking velocimetry. Directly introduced aerosols are highly scattered across the plasma torch as a result of their radial motion, indicating less than optimum sample consumption efficiency for the current direct injection devices. Further, the velocity distribution of the surviving droplets demonstrates the importance of the initial droplet velocities in complete desolvation of the aerosol for optimum analytical performance in ICP spectrometries. These new observations are critical in the design of the next-generation direct injection devices for lower sample consumption, higher sensitivity, lower noise levels, suppressed matrix effects, and developing smart spectrometers.

Spatial mapping of droplet velocity and size for direct and indirect nebulization in plasma spectrometry.

Two novel laser-based imaging techniques centered on particle image velocimetry and optical patternation are used to map and contrast the size and velocity distributions for indirect and direct pneumatic nebulizations in plasma spectrometry. The flow field of droplets is illuminated by two pulses from a thin laser sheet with a known time difference. The scattering of the laser light from droplets is captured by a charge-coupled device (CCD), providing two instantaneous images of the particles. Pointwise cross-correlation of the corresponding images yields a two-dimensional velocity map of the aerosol velocity field. For droplet size distribution studies, the solution is doped with a fluorescent dye and both laser-induced florescence (LIF) and Mie scattering images are captured simultaneously by two CCDs with the same field of view. The ratio of the LIF/Mie images provides relative droplet size information, which is then scaled by a point calibration method via a phase Doppler particle analyzer. Two major findings are realized for three nebulization systems: (1) a direct injection high-efficiency nebulizer (DIHEN); (2) a large-bore DIHEN; and (3) a PFA microflow nebulizer with a PFA Scott-type spray chamber. First, the central region of the aerosol cone from the direct injection nebulizers and the nebulizer-spray chamber arrangement consists of fast (>13 and >8 m/s, respectively) and fine (<10 and <5 microm, respectively) droplets as compared to slow (<4 m/s) and large (>25 microm) droplets in the fringes. Second, the spray chamber acts as a momentum separator, rather than a droplet size selector, as it removes droplets having larger sizes or velocities. The concepts and results presented in this research may be used to develop smart-tunable nebulizers, for example, by using the measured momentum as a feedback control for adjusting the nebulizer, i.e., its operating conditions, its critical dimensions, or both.

Mixed-gas inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry using a direct injection high efficiency nebulizer.

Experimental studies and computer simulations were conducted to identify plasma operating conditions and to explore and contrast the excitation conditions of Ar, Ar-O2, and Ar-He inductively coupled plasmas (ICPs) for the introduction of microliter volumes of sample solutions with a direct injection high efficiency nebulizer (DIHEN). The best MgII 280.270 nm/MgI 285.213 nm ratio (6.6) measured with Ar ICP atomic emission spectrometry for the DIHEN (RF power = 1500 W; nebulizer gas flow rate = 0.12 L min(-1)) was less than the ratio (8.2) acquired on the same instrument for conventional nebulization (1500 W and 0.6 L min(-1)). Addition of small amounts of O2 or He (5%) to the outer gas flow improved excitation conditions in the ICP, that is, a more robust condition (a MgII/MgI ratio of up to 8.9) could be obtained by using the DIHEN with Ar-O2 and Ar-He mixed-gas plasmas, thereby minimizing some potential spectroscopic and matrix interferences, in comparison to Ar ICPAES.