Greenhouse gas footprinting for small businesses--the use of input-output data.

To mitigate anthropogenic climate change greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) must be reduced; their major source is man's use of energy. A key way to manage emissions is for the energy consumer to understand their impact and the consequences of changing their activities. This paper addresses the challenge of delivering relevant, practical and reliable greenhouse gas 'footprint' information for small and medium sized businesses. The tool we describe is capable of ascribing parts of the total footprint to specific actions to which the business can relate and is sensitive enough to reflect the consequences of change. It provides a comprehensive description of all emissions for each business and sets them in the context of local, national and global statistics. It includes the GHG costs of all goods and services irrespective of their origin and without double accounting. We describe the development and use of the tool, which draws upon both national input-output data and process-based life cycle analysis techniques; a hybrid model. The use of national data sets the output in context and makes the results consistent with national and global targets, while the life cycle techniques provide a means of reflecting the dynamics of actions. The model is described in some detail along with a rationale and a short discussion of validity. As the tool is designed for small commercial users, we have taken care to combine rigour with practicality; parameterising from readily available client data whilst being clear about uncertainties. As an additional incentive, we also report on the potential costs or savings of switching activities. For users to benefit from the tool, they need to understand the output and know how much confidence they should place in the results. We not only describe an application of non-parametric statistics to generate confidence intervals, but also offer users the option of and guidance on adjusting figures to examine the sensitivity of the model to its components. It is important that the user does not see the model as a calculator that will generate one truth, but as a method of gaining insight and informing management decisions. We describe its application in tourism businesses in North West England as a demonstrator for the service sector remote from simple primary production, with brief case studies. We discuss its success compared to traditional approaches and outline further development work.

Isokinetic performance in low back pain patients: The predictive power of the Self-Efficacy Scale.

The Self-Efficacy Scale (SES) has been found to predict isokinetic performance better than anthropometric variables. This study tests the predictive power of SES further against other measures of efficacy expectancies as well as measures of depression and perceived disability. A group of 105 chronic back pain patients was administered Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI), SES, the Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (PSEQ), and the Oswestry low back pain disability questionnaire (OSWESTRY). Total isokinetic work done was measured at slow, medium and high speeds, for which multiple regression models were fitted controlling for sex, age, weight and height. The results confirmed SES to be the best overall predictor of isokinetic performance. BDI was not significant as a predictor of isokinetic performance. The models also revealed that SES predicts less well with increases in the test speed, particularly in extension. These results provide further evidence of the diagnostic value of SES relative to OSWESTRY and PSEQ.

Reported pain during lumbar discography as a function of anular ruptures and disc degeneration. A re-analysis of 833 discograms.

STUDY DESIGN: This re-analysis was based on 833 computed tomography/discograms collected from 306 candidates for back surgery. OBJECTIVES: The goal was to test the hypothesis that outer anular ruptures are the main determinant of the pain of discography. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Previous analyses indicated univariate associations of pain with disc degeneration and anular ruptures. METHODS: If present, pain was classified as "exact", "similar", or "dissimilar" reproduction of the previously experienced pain. For each disc, ruptures and degeneration were separately evaluated by a four-point scale. Multiple logistic regression with random effects was used in the analysis. RESULTS: Outer anular ruptures were the only predictor of the responses "similar" and "exact". General disc degeneration was the only predictor of the response "dissimilar". There was no effect modification due to gender, age, and spinal level. CONCLUSIONS: During discography, the outer anulus appears to be the origin of pain reproduction.

Anthropometric variables, self-efficacy beliefs, and pain and disability ratings on the isokinetic performance of low back pain patients.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated how age, sex, height, body weight, self-efficacy beliefs, pain, and subjective disability predict the performance of low back pain patients on an isokinetic trunk muscle test. METHODS: One hundred and five patients participated in the study. Dependent variables were isokinetic flexion and extension strength measured as total work done at speeds 50, 100, and 150 degrees/second. RESULTS: The anthropometric measures were poor predictors, height being the only significant one. Body weight and age were of no relevance for the performance. Subjective pain and disability had negative effects on the performance of men, but not of women. Self-efficacy beliefs, i.e., the patient's belief in his or her capability to endure physical activities, was the most powerful predictor. CONCLUSION: For the purpose of validation, standardization, and interpretation of isokinetic performance in low back pain patients, these factors should be taken into account.

Seasonal variation in neck and shoulder symptoms.

The objective of the investigation was to study the course of neck and shoulder symptoms and the predictors for these symptoms among women in light sedentary work. Postal surveys were conducted among 351 tellers (age 20-50 years) of a bank company in September, December, March, and May. The response rates were 74-90%. The outcome was the frequency of the symptoms during the previous three months. In the analysis, univariate explorations and random-effects logistic binomial regression for distinguishable responses were used. A change in the frequency of neck and shoulder symptoms was seen in 40.5% of the subjects during the follow-up period from autumn to spring. The frequency of the symptoms decreased from autumn and winter towards spring. The stability of the frequency of the symptoms was positively associated with age. Seasonal variation in symptoms should be considered when preventive programs against neck and shoulder disorders are planned and evaluated.