Macrophage and T cell produced IL-10 promotes viral chronicity.

Chronic viral infections lead to CD8(+) T cell exhaustion, characterized by impaired cytokine secretion. Presence of the immune-regulatory cytokine IL-10 promotes chronicity of Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV) Clone 13 infection, while absence of IL-10/IL-10R signaling early during infection results in viral clearance and higher percentages and numbers of antiviral, cytokine producing T cells. IL-10 is produced by several cell types during LCMV infection but it is currently unclear which cellular sources are responsible for induction of viral chronicity. Here, we demonstrate that although dendritic cells produce IL-10 and overall IL-10 mRNA levels decrease significantly in absence of CD11c(+) cells, absence of IL-10 produced by CD11c(+) cells failed to improve the LCMV-specific T cell response and control of LCMV infection. Similarly, NK cell specific IL-10 deficiency had no positive impact on the LCMV-specific T cell response or viral control, even though high percentages of NK cells produced IL-10 at early time points after infection. Interestingly, we found markedly improved T cell responses and clearance of normally chronic LCMV Clone 13 infection when either myeloid cells or T cells lacked IL-10 production and mice depleted of monocytes/macrophages or CD4(+) T cells exhibited reduced overall levels of IL-10 mRNA. These data suggest that the decision whether LCMV infection becomes chronic or can be cleared critically depends on early CD4(+) T cell and monocyte/macrophage produced IL-10.

Constitutively CD40-activated B cells regulate CD8 T cell inflammatory response by IL-10 induction.

B cells are exposed to high levels of CD40 ligand (CD40L, CD154) in chronic inflammatory diseases. In addition, B cells expressing both CD40 and CD40L have been identified in human diseases such as autoimmune diseases and lymphoma. However, how such constitutively CD40-activated B cells under inflammation may impact on T cell response remains unknown. Using a mouse model in which B cells express a CD40L transgene (CD40LTg) and receive autocrine CD40/CD40L signaling, we show that CD40LTg B cells stimulated memory-like CD4 and CD8 T cells to express IL-10. This IL-10 expression by CD8 T cells was dependent on IFN-I and programmed cell death protein 1, and was critical for CD8 T cells to counterregulate their overactivation. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of naive CD8 T cells in RAG-1(-/-) mice normally induces colitis in association with IL-17 and IFN-γ cytokine production. Using this model, we show that adoptive cotransfer of CD40LTg B cells, but not wild-type B cells, significantly reduced IL-17 response and regulated colitis in association with IL-10 induction in CD8 T cells. Thus, B cells expressing CD40L can be a therapeutic goal to regulate inflammatory CD8 T cell response by IL-10 induction.

IL-10 suppression of NK/DC crosstalk leads to poor priming of MCMV-specific CD4 T cells and prolonged MCMV persistence.

IL-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that regulates the extent of host immunity to infection by exerting suppressive effects on different cell types. Herpes viruses induce IL-10 to modulate the virus-host balance towards their own benefit, resulting in prolonged virus persistence. To define the cellular and molecular players involved in IL-10 modulation of herpes virus-specific immunity, we studied mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. Here we demonstrate that IL-10 specifically curtails the MCMV-specific CD4 T cell response by suppressing the bidirectional crosstalk between NK cells and myeloid dendritic cells (DCs). In absence of IL-10, NK cells licensed DCs to effectively prime MCMV-specific CD4 T cells and we defined the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α as well as NK cell activating receptors NKG2D and NCR-1 to regulate this bidirectional NK/DC interplay. Consequently, markedly enhanced priming of MCMV-specific CD4 T cells in Il10(-/-) mice led to faster control of lytic viral replication, but this came at the expense of TNF-α mediated immunopathology. Taken together, our data show that early induction of IL-10 during MCMV infection critically regulates the strength of the innate-adaptive immune cell crosstalk, thereby impacting beneficially on the ensuing virus-host balance for both the virus and the host.

IL-10 mediated regulation of liver inflammation during acute murine cytomegalovirus infection.

Various cell types in both lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues produce the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 during murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. The functions of IL-10 in the liver during acute infection and the cells that generate this cytokine at this site have not been extensively investigated. In this study, we demonstrate that the production of IL-10 in the liver is elevated in C57BL/6 mice during late acute MCMV infection. Using IL-10 green fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter knock-in mice, designated IL-10-internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-GFP-enhanced reporter (tiger), NK cells are identified as major IL-10 expressing cells in the liver after infection, along with T cells and other leukocytes. In the absence of IL-10, mice exhibit marked elevations in proinflammatory cytokines and in the numbers of mononuclear cells and lymphocytes infiltrating the liver during this infection. IL-10-deficiency also enhances liver injury without improving viral clearance from this site. Collectively, the results indicate that IL-10-producing cells in the liver provide protection from collateral injury by modulating the inflammatory response associated with MCMV infection.

IL-10 signaling in CD4+ T cells is critical for the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: IL-10 is a very important anti-inflammatory cytokine. However, the role of this cytokine in T cells in the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis is unclear. The purpose of this study was to define the role of IL-10 signaling in T cells in the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis. METHODS: IL-10 receptor dominant-negative transgenic (Tg) and control mice were immunized with bovine type II collagen to induce arthritis. The severity of arthritis was monitored and examined histologically. T-cell activation and cytokine production were analyzed using flow cytometry. T-cell proliferation was examined by [3H]thymidine incorporation. Antigen-specific antibodies in serum were measured by ELISA. Foxp3 expression in CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) was determined by intracellular staining or Foxp3-RFP reporter mice. The suppressive function of Foxp3+ CD4+ Tregs was determined in vitro by performing a T-cell proliferation assay. The level of IL-17 mRNA in joints was measured by real-time PCR. A two-tailed nonparametric paired test (Wilcoxon signed-rank test) was used to calculate the arthritis and histological scores. Student's paired or unpaired t-test was used for all other statistical analyses (InStat version 2.03 software; GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). RESULTS: Blocking IL-10 signaling in T cells rendered mice, especially female mice, highly susceptible to collagen-induced arthritis. T-cell activation and proliferation were enhanced and produced more IFN-γ. The suppressive function of CD4+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells was significantly impaired in Tg mice because of the reduced ability of Tregs from Tg mice to maintain their levels of Foxp3. This was further confirmed by transferring Foxp3-RFP cells from Tg or wild-type (Wt) mice into a congenic Wt host. The higher level of IL-17 mRNA was detected in inflammatory joints of Tg mice, probably due to the recruitment of IL-17+ γδ T cells into the arthritic joints. CONCLUSION: IL-10 signaling in T cells is critical for dampening the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis by maintaining the function of Tregs and the recruitment of IL-17+ γδ T cells.

Memory/effector (CD45RB(lo)) CD4 T cells are controlled directly by IL-10 and cause IL-22-dependent intestinal pathology.

The role of direct IL-10 signaling in different T cell subsets is not well understood. To address this, we generated transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative IL-10 receptor specifically in T cells (CD4dnIL-10Rα). We found that Foxp3-depleted CD45RB(lo) (regulatory T cell [T(reg) cell]-depleted CD45RB(lo)) but not CD45RB(hi) CD4(+) T cells are controlled directly by IL-10 upon transfer into Rag1 knockout (KO) mice. Furthermore, the colitis induced by transfer of T(reg) cell-depleted CD45RB(lo) CD4(+) T cells into Rag1 KO mice was characterized by reduced Th1 and increased Th17 cytokine messenger RNA levels in the colon as compared with the colitis induced by transfer of CD45RB(hi) T cells. In contrast to the CD45RB(hi) transfer colitis model, in which IL-22 is protective, we found that T cell-derived IL-22 was pathogenic upon transfer of T(reg) cell-depleted CD45RB(lo) T cells into Rag1 KO mice. Our results highlight characteristic differences between colitis induced by naive (CD45RB(hi)) and memory/effector (T(reg) cell-depleted CD45RB(lo)) cells and different ways that IL-22 impacts inflammatory bowel disease.

Mice lacking endogenous IL-10-producing regulatory B cells develop exacerbated disease and present with an increased frequency of Th1/Th17 but a decrease in regulatory T cells.

IL-10-producing B cells, also known as regulatory B cells (Bregs), play a key role in controlling autoimmunity. In this study, we report that chimeric mice specifically lacking IL-10-producing B cells (IL-10(-/-)B cell) developed an exacerbated arthritis compared with chimeric wild-type (WT) B cell mice. A significant decrease in the absolute numbers of Foxp3 regulatory T cells (Tregs), in their expression level of Foxp3, and a marked increase in inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cells were detected in IL-10(-/-) B cell mice compared with WT B cell mice. Reconstitution of arthritic B cell deficient (µMT) mice with different B cell subsets revealed that the ability to modulate Treg frequencies in vivo is exclusively restricted to transitional 2 marginal zone precursor Bregs. Moreover, transfer of WT transitional 2 marginal zone precursor Bregs to arthritic IL-10(-/-) mice increased Foxp3(+) Tregs and reduced Th1 and Th17 cell frequencies to levels measured in arthritic WT mice and inhibited inflammation. In vitro, IL-10(+/+) B cells established longer contact times with arthritogenic CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells compared with IL-10(-/-) B cells in response to Ag stimulation, and using the same culture conditions, we observed upregulation of Foxp3 on CD4(+) T cells. Thus, IL-10-producing B cells restrain inflammation by promoting differentiation of immunoregulatory over proinflammatory T cells.

Th17 cells express interleukin-10 receptor and are controlled by Foxp3⁻ and Foxp3+ regulatory CD4+ T cells in an interleukin-10-dependent manner.

T helper 17 (Th17) cells are important for host defense against extracellular microorganisms. However, they are also implicated in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases, and as such need to be tightly regulated. The mechanisms that directly control committed pathogenic Th17 cells in vivo remain unclear. We showed here that IL-17A-producing CD4+ T cells expressed interleukin-10 receptor α (IL-10Rα) in vivo. Importantly, T cell-specific blockade of IL-10 signaling led to a selective increase of IL-17A+IFN-γ⁻ (Th17) and IL-17A+IFN-γ+ (Th17+Th1) CD4+ T cells during intestinal inflammation in the small intestine. CD4+Foxp3⁻ IL-10-producing (Tr1) cells and CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory (Treg) cells were able to control Th17 and Th17+Th1 cells in an IL-10-dependent manner in vivo. Lastly, IL-10 treatment of mice with established colitis decreased Th17 and Th17+Th1 cell frequencies via direct signaling in T cells. Thus, IL-10 signaling directly suppresses Th17 and Th17+Th1 cells.

IL-10 signaling blockade controls murine West Nile virus infection.

West Nile virus (WNV), a mosquito-borne single-stranded RNA flavivirus, can cause significant human morbidity and mortality. Our data show that interleukin-10 (IL-10) is dramatically elevated both in vitro and in vivo following WNV infection. Consistent with an etiologic role of IL-10 in WNV pathogenesis, we find that WNV infection is markedly diminished in IL-10 deficient (IL-10(-/-)) mice, and pharmacologic blockade of IL-10 signaling by IL-10 neutralizing antibody increases survival of WNV-infected mice. Increased production of antiviral cytokines in IL-10(-/-) mice is associated with more efficient control of WNV infection. Moreover, CD4(+) T cells produce copious amounts of IL-10, and may be an important cellular source of IL-10 during WNV infection in vivo. In conclusion, IL-10 signaling plays a negative role in immunity against WNV infection, and blockade of IL-10 signaling by genetic or pharmacologic means helps to control viral infection, suggesting a novel anti-WNV therapeutic strategy.

Amino acid polymorphisms altering the glycosylation of IL-2 do not protect from type 1 diabetes in the NOD mouse.

Idd3 is one of many gene regions that affect the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D) in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse. Idd3 has been localized to a 650-kb region on chromosome 3 containing the IL-2 gene. Exon 1 of the IL-2 gene is polymorphic between the susceptible NOD and the protective C57BL/6 (B6) alleles, causing multiple amino acid changes that have been proposed to be responsible for the differing glycosylation status. To address whether this coding polymorphism recapitulates the disease suppression mediated by the B6 Idd3 allele, we generated knockin mice in which exon 1 of the B6 IL-2 allele replaces the homologous region in the NOD allele. We generated these mice by targeting the NOD allele of NOD/129 F(1) ES cells. IL-2 protein from the knockin mice showed the glycosylation pattern of the B6 IL-2 isoform, confirming that the amino acid differences encoded within exon 1 affect the glycosylation of the IL-2 protein. However, unlike NOD.B6 Idd3 congenic mice, the knockin mice were not protected from T1D. Furthermore, the difference in amino acid sequence in the IL-2 protein did not affect the level of expression of IL-2. This approach provides a general method for the determination of a functional role of a given genomic sequence in a disease process. Further, our result demonstrates that the variants in exon 1 of the IL-2 gene are not responsible for T1D suppression in NOD.B6 Idd3 mice, thereby supporting the hypothesis that variants in the regulatory region affecting expression levels are causative.

Anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory roles of TGF-beta, IL-10, and IL-22 in immunity and autoimmunity.

Cytokines play a major role in maintaining lymphocyte homeostasis under both steady-state and inflammatory conditions. Unregulated lymphocytes in steady-state conditions can lead to autoimmunity, whereas during inflammation they can cause excessive tissue damage. Regulatory cytokines function in combination with other environmental signals to properly modulate the function and the extent of lymphocyte activation. Many recent studies have highlighted the importance of regulatory cytokines in controlling the differentiation and function of lymphocytes under steady-state and inflammatory conditions, as well as minimizing tissue damage.

A protective function for interleukin 17A in T cell-mediated intestinal inflammation.

Interleukin 23 (IL-23) and IL-17 have been linked to the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease. Yet as an important function for IL-23 is emerging, the function of IL-17 in inflammatory bowel disease remains unclear. Here we demonstrate IL-17A-mediated protection in the CD45RBhi transfer model of colitis. An accelerated wasting disease elicited by T cells deficient in IL-17A correlated with higher expression of genes encoding T helper type 1-type cytokines in colon tissue. IL-17A also modulated T helper type 1 polarization in vitro. Furthermore, T cells deficient in the IL-17 receptor elicited an accelerated, aggressive wasting disease relative to that elicited by wild-type T cells in recipient mice. Our data demonstrate a protective function for IL-17 and identify T cells as not only the source but also a target of IL-17 in vivo.

IL-10 from CD4CD25Foxp3CD127 adaptive regulatory T cells modulates parasite clearance and pathology during malaria infection.

The outcome of malaria infection is determined, in part, by the balance of pro-inflammatory and regulatory immune responses. Failure to develop an effective pro-inflammatory response can lead to unrestricted parasite replication, whilst failure to regulate this response leads to the development of severe immunopathology. IL-10 and TGF-beta are known to be important components of the regulatory response, but the cellular source of these cytokines is still unknown. Here we have examined the role of natural and adaptive regulatory T cells in the control of malaria infection and find that classical CD4+CD25(hi) (and Foxp3+) regulatory T cells do not significantly influence the outcome of infections with the lethal (17XL) strain of Plasmodium yoelii (PyL). In contrast, we find that adaptive IL-10-producing, CD4+ T cells (which are CD25-, Foxp3-, and CD127- and do not produce Th1, Th2, or Th17 associated cytokines) that are generated during both PyL and non-lethal P. yoelii 17X (PyNL) infections are able to down-regulate pro-inflammatory responses and impede parasite clearance. In summary, we have identified a population of induced Foxp3- regulatory (Tr1) T cells, characterised by production of IL-10 and down regulation of IL-7Ralpha, that modulates the inflammatory response to malaria.

A dominant function for interleukin 27 in generating interleukin 10-producing anti-inflammatory T cells.

Regulatory T cells (T(reg) cells) expressing the transcription factor Foxp3 are key in maintaining the balance of immune homeostasis. However, distinct induced T regulatory type 1 (Tr1) cells that lack Foxp3 expression also regulate T cell function, mainly by producing the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10). However, the factors required for the induction of IL-10-producing suppressive T cells are not fully understood. Here we demonstrate that dendritic cells modified by T(reg) cells induced the generation of IL-10-producing Tr1 cells. The differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into IL-10-producing cells was mediated by IL-27 produced by the T(reg) cell-modified dendritic cells, and transforming growth factor-beta amplified the generation of induced IL-10+ Tr1 cells by IL-27. Thus, IL-27 and transforming growth factor-beta promote the generation of IL-10-producing Tr1 cells.

IL-13Ralpha2 and IL-10 coordinately suppress airway inflammation, airway-hyperreactivity, and fibrosis in mice.

Development of persistent Th2 responses in asthma and chronic helminth infections are a major health concern. IL-10 has been identified as a critical regulator of Th2 immunity, but mechanisms for controlling Th2 effector function remain unclear. IL-10 also has paradoxical effects on Th2-associated pathology, with IL-10 deficiency resulting in increased Th2-driven inflammation but also reduced airway hyperreactivity (AHR), mucus hypersecretion, and fibrosis. We demonstrate that increased IL-13 receptor alpha 2 (IL-13Ralpha2) expression is responsible for the reduced AHR, mucus production, and fibrosis in BALB/c IL-10(-/-) mice. Using models of allergic asthma and chronic helminth infection, we demonstrate that IL-10 and IL-13Ralpha2 coordinately suppress Th2-mediated inflammation and pathology, respectively. Although IL-10 was identified as the dominant antiinflammatory mediator, studies with double IL-10/IL-13Ralpha2-deficient mice illustrate an indispensable role for IL-13Ralpha2 in the suppression of AHR, mucus production, and fibrosis. Thus, IL-10 and IL-13Ralpha2 are both required to control chronic Th2-driven pathological responses.

Conventional T-bet(+)Foxp3(-) Th1 cells are the major source of host-protective regulatory IL-10 during intracellular protozoan infection.

Although interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) secretion is essential for control of most intracellular pathogens, host survival often also depends on the expression of interleukin 10 (IL-10), a cytokine known to counteract IFN-gamma effector functions. We analyzed the source of regulatory IL-10 in mice infected with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Unexpectedly, IFN-gamma-secreting T-bet(+)Foxp3(-) T helper type 1 (Th1) cells were found to be the major producers of IL-10 in these animals. Further analysis revealed that the same IL-10(+)IFN-gamma(gamma) population displayed potent effector function against the parasite while, paradoxically, also inducing profound suppression of IL-12 production by antigen-presenting cells. Although at any given time point only a fraction of the cells appeared to simultaneously produce IL-10 and IFN-gamma, IL-10 production could be stimulated in IL-10(-)IFN-gamma(+) cells by further activation in vitro. In addition, experiments with T. gondii-specific IL-10(+)IFN-gamma(+) CD4 clones revealed that although IFN-gamma expression is imprinted and triggered with similar kinetics regardless of the state of Th1 cell activation, IL-10 secretion is induced more rapidly from recently activated than from resting cells. These findings indicate that IL-10 production by CD4(+) T lymphocytes need not involve a distinct regulatory Th cell subset but can be generated in Th1 cells as part of the effector response to intracellular pathogens.

Expression of interleukin-10 in intestinal lymphocytes detected by an interleukin-10 reporter knockin tiger mouse.

To identify interleukin-10 (IL-10)-producing cells in vivo, we generated a knockin mouse where an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) green fluorescence protein (GFP) element was inserted immediately before the polyadenylation site of the IL-10 gene. GFP fluorescence in cells from these mice was found to correlate positively with IL-10 protein expression. With this model, we found that after multiple T cell receptor (TCR) stimulations, strong expression of IL-10 was produced specifically by intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) in the small intestine and colonic lamina propria lymphocytes (cLPL). We found that anti-CD3 treatment induces T regulatory cell 1 (Tr1)-like cells in small intestinal IEL (sIEL) and led to the accumulation of naturally occurring regulatory T (nTreg) cells in colonic LPL (cLPL). These findings highlight the intestine as a unique site for induction of IL-10-producing T cells, which play a critical role in the regulation of inflammation in the gut.

OX40 (CD134) and OX40 ligand interaction plays an adjuvant role during in vivo Th2 responses.

The role of OX40-OX40 ligand (OX40L) interaction in Th cell differentiation remains contentious. In vitro studies have revealed a Th2-biased effect by OX40 signals in T cells. However, in vivo studies demonstrated that OX40-OX40L interaction is involved in responses either Th1 or Th2, or both, which appears to be dependent on the experimental conditions used. We document in our report Th cell differentiation in OX40L-deficient and OX40L-transgenic (Tg) mice in response to protein antigens (Ag) and to Leishmania major (L. major) infection. Upon immunization with protein Ag, we demonstrate the adjuvant effect of OX40 signals during in vivo Th2 responses. However, adjuvant treatment to mice ameliorates the Th2-specific effect of OX40-OX40L interaction and rather induces concurrent promotion of both Th1 and Th2 responses via OX40 signals. Thus, previous reports showing promotion of Th1 response by OX40-OX40L interaction may in actual fact be affected by the adjuvant effects mediated by the various experimental conditions. Indeed, constitutive OX40-OX40L interactions in OX40L-Tg mice converted the normally resistant C57BL/6 strain, into a susceptible status following L. major infection due to an extraordinary elevated Th2 response. These results provide convincing evidence demonstrating that the OX40-OX40L interaction is paramount in the development of Th2 responses in vivo.

Differential involvement of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases MKK3 and MKK6 in T-cell apoptosis.

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) is activated in response to various stimuli, including cellular stress, inflammatory cytokines and cell surface receptors. The activation of p38MAPK is predominantly mediated by the two upstream MAPK kinases MKK3 and MKK6. To study the role of the p38MAPK pathway in vivo, we generated Mkk6-/- mice. We examined whether T-cell apoptosis is affected in these mice and in our previously reported Mkk3-/- mice. Strikingly, in vivo deletion of double positive thymocytes in Mkk6-/- mice was impaired, whereas Mkk3-/- mice showed no apparent abnormality. Conversely, CD4(+)T cells from Mkk3-/- but not from Mkk6-/- mice were resistant to activation-induced cell death and cytokine-withdrawal-induced apoptosis. In peripheral CD4(+)T cells, MKK3 is induced upon stimulation, whereas MKK6 is downregulated. These results suggest a novel mechanism regulating T-cell apoptosis differentially through the p38MAPK pathway by MKK3 and MKK6.

Bilirubin ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats.

Many possible treatments for pulmonary fibrosis have been investigated, but except for some current clinical trials, none have succeeded in clinical trials. On the basis of the antioxidant action of bilirubin (BIL), we examined the effects of hyperbilirubinemia on the development of bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats. The animals' plasma BIL level was kept within 3 and 10 mg/dl by repeated intravenous infusion of a high dose of BIL. We studied the inhibitory effects of hyperbilirubinemia on BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis through histopathologic and biochemical analyses. Mortality of rats with BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis was significantly lower in the three groups with hyperbilirubinemia. The ameliorating effect of hyperbilirubinemia on pulmonary fibrosis was shown by lung histology, as well as by a decreased lung content of hydroxyproline and reduced bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) concentration of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta(1). The number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes in BALF was also decreased in the groups with hyperbilirubinemia. Furthermore, oxidative metabolites of BIL in urine were present at significantly higher levels in BLM-treated rats with hyperbilirubinemia than in those without hyperbilirubinemia. These data suggest that the antioxidative action of BIL can attenuate BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis, partly by inhibiting lung inflammation and production of TGF-beta1.