Tertiary structure and conformational dynamics of the anti-amyloidogenic chaperone DNAJB6b at atomistic resolution.

DNAJB6b is a molecular chaperone of the heat shock protein network, shown to play a crucial role in preventing aggregation of several disease-related intrinsically disordered proteins. Using homology modeling and microsecond-long all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we show that monomeric DNAJB6b is a transiently interconverting protein cycling between three states: a closed state, an open state (both abundant), and a less abundant extended state. Interestingly, the reported regulatory autoinhibitory anchor between helix V in the G/F1 region and helices II/III of the J-domain, which obstructs the access of Hsp70 to the J-domain remains present in all three states. This possibly suggests a mechanistically intriguing regulation in which DNAJB6b only becomes exposed when loaded with substrates that require Hsp70 processing. Our MD results of DNAJB6b carrying mutations in the G/F1 region that are linked to limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type D1 (LGMDD1) show that this G/F1 region becomes highly dynamic, pointing towards a spontaneous release of the autoinhibitory helix V from helices II/III. This would increase the probability of non-functional Hsp70 interactions to DNAJB6b without substrates. Our cellular data indeed confirm that non-substrate loaded LGMDD1 mutants have aberrant interactions with Hsp70.

DNAJB8 oligomerization is mediated by an aromatic-rich motif that is dispensable for substrate activity.

J-domain protein (JDP) molecular chaperones have emerged as central players that maintain a healthy proteome. The diverse members of the JDP family function as monomers/dimers and a small subset assemble into micron-sized oligomers. The oligomeric JDP members have eluded structural characterization due to their low-complexity, intrinsically disordered middle domains. This in turn, obscures the biological significance of these larger oligomers in protein folding processes. Here, we identified a short, aromatic motif within DNAJB8 that drives self-assembly through π-π stacking and determined its X-ray structure. We show that mutations in the motif disrupt DNAJB8 oligomerization in vitro and in cells. DNAJB8 variants that are unable to assemble bind to misfolded tau seeds more specifically and retain capacity to reduce protein aggregation in vitro and in cells. We propose a new model for DNAJB8 function in which the sequences in the low-complexity domains play distinct roles in assembly and substrate activity.

J-domain proteins: From molecular mechanisms to diseases.

J-domain proteins (JDPs) are the largest family of chaperones in most organisms, but much of how they function within the network of other chaperones and protein quality control machineries is still an enigma. Here, we report on the latest findings related to JDP functions presented at a dedicated JDP workshop in Gdansk, Poland. The report does not include all (details) of what was shared and discussed at the meeting, because some of these original data have not yet been accepted for publication elsewhere or represented still preliminary observations at the time.

DNAJB8 oligomerization is mediated by an aromatic-rich motif that is dispensable for substrate activity.

J-domain protein (JDP) molecular chaperones have emerged as central players that maintain a healthy proteome. The diverse members of the JDP family function as monomers/dimers and a small subset assemble into micron-sized oligomers. The oligomeric JDP members have eluded structural characterization due to their low-complexity, intrinsically disordered middle domains. This in turn, obscures the biological significance of these larger oligomers in protein folding processes. Here, we identified a short, aromatic motif within DNAJB8, that drives self-assembly through pi-pi stacking and determined its X-ray structure. We show that mutations in the motif disrupt DNAJB8 oligomerization in vitro and in cells. DNAJB8 variants that are unable to assemble bind to misfolded tau seeds more specifically and retain capacity to reduce protein aggregation in vitro and in cells. We propose a new model for DNAJB8 function in which the sequences in the low-complexity domains play distinct roles in assembly and substrate activity.

Digest it all: the lysosomal turnover of cytoplasmic aggregates.

Aggrephagy describes the selective lysosomal transport and turnover of cytoplasmic protein aggregates by macro-autophagy. In this process, protein aggregates and conglomerates are polyubiquitinated and then sequestered by autophagosomes. Soluble selective autophagy receptors (SARs) are central to aggrephagy and physically bind to both ubiquitin and the autophagy machinery, thus linking the cargo to the forming autophagosomal membrane. Because the accumulation of protein aggregates is associated with cytotoxicity in several diseases, a better molecular understanding of aggrephagy might provide a conceptual framework to develop therapeutic strategies aimed at delaying the onset of these pathologies by preventing the buildup of potentially toxic aggregates. We review recent advances in our knowledge about the mechanism of aggrephagy.

The chaperone DNAJB6 surveils FG-nucleoporins and is required for interphase nuclear pore complex biogenesis.

Biogenesis of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) includes the formation of the permeability barrier composed of phenylalanine-glycine-rich nucleoporins (FG-Nups) that regulate the selective passage of biomolecules across the nuclear envelope. The FG-Nups are intrinsically disordered and prone to liquid-liquid phase separation and aggregation when isolated. How FG-Nups are protected from making inappropriate interactions during NPC biogenesis is not fully understood. Here we find that DNAJB6, a molecular chaperone of the heat shock protein network, forms foci in close proximity to NPCs. The number of these foci decreases upon removal of proteins involved in the early steps of interphase NPC biogenesis. Conversely, when this process is stalled in the last steps, the number of DNAJB6-containing foci increases and these foci are identified as herniations at the nuclear envelope. Immunoelectron tomography shows that DNAJB6 localizes inside the lumen of the herniations arising at NPC biogenesis intermediates. Loss of DNAJB6 results in the accumulation of cytosolic annulate lamellae, which are structures containing partly assembled NPCs, a feature associated with disturbances in NPC biogenesis. We find that DNAJB6 binds to FG-Nups and can prevent the aggregation of the FG region of several FG-Nups in cells and in vitro. Together, our data show that the molecular chaperone DNAJB6 provides quality control during NPC biogenesis and is involved in the surveillance of native intrinsically disordered FG-Nups.

Targeting DNA topoisomerases or checkpoint kinases results in an overload of chaperone systems, triggering aggregation of a metastable subproteome.

A loss of the checkpoint kinase ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) leads to impairments in the DNA damage response, and in humans causes cerebellar neurodegeneration, and an increased risk of cancer. A loss of ATM is also associated with increased protein aggregation. The relevance and characteristics of this aggregation are still incompletely understood. Moreover, it is unclear to what extent other genotoxic conditions can trigger protein aggregation as well. Here, we show that targeting ATM, but also ATR or DNA topoisomerases, results in the widespread aggregation of a metastable, disease-associated subfraction of the proteome. Aggregation-prone model substrates, including Huntingtin exon 1 containing an expanded polyglutamine repeat, aggregate faster under these conditions. This increased aggregation results from an overload of chaperone systems, which lowers the cell-intrinsic threshold for proteins to aggregate. In line with this, we find that inhibition of the HSP70 chaperone system further exacerbates the increased protein aggregation. Moreover, we identify the molecular chaperone HSPB5 as a cell-specific suppressor of it. Our findings reveal that various genotoxic conditions trigger widespread protein aggregation in a manner that is highly reminiscent of the aggregation occurring in situations of proteotoxic stress and in proteinopathies.

Cells are constantly perceiving and responding to changes in their surroundings, and challenging conditions such as extreme heat or toxic chemicals can put cells under stress. When this happens, protein production can be affected. Proteins are long chains of chemical building blocks called amino acids, and they can only perform their roles if they fold into the right shape. Some proteins fold easily and remain folded, but others can be unstable and often become misfolded. Unfolded proteins can become a problem because they stick to each other, forming large clumps called aggregates that can interfere with the normal activity of cells, causing damage. The causes of stress that have a direct effect on protein folding are called proteotoxic stresses, and include, for example, high temperatures, which make proteins more flexible and unstable, increasing their chances of becoming unfolded. To prevent proteins becoming misfolded, cells can make 'protein chaperones', a type of proteins that help other proteins fold correctly and stay folded. The production of protein chaperones often increases in response to proteotoxic stress. However, there are other types of stress too, such as genotoxic stress, which damages DNA. It is unclear what effect genotoxic stress has on protein folding. Huiting et al. studied protein folding during genotoxic stress in human cells grown in the lab. Stress was induced by either blocking the proteins that repair DNA or by 'trapping' the proteins that release DNA tension, both of which result in DNA damage. The analysis showed that, similar to the effects of proteotoxic stress, genotoxic stress increased the number of proteins that aggregate, although certain proteins formed aggregates even without stress, particularly if they were common and relatively unstable proteins. Huiting et al.'s results suggest that aggregation increases in cells under genotoxic stress because the cells fail to produce enough chaperones to effectively fold all the proteins that need it. Indeed, Huiting et al. showed that aggregates contain many proteins that rely on chaperones, and that increasing the number of chaperones in stressed cells reduced protein aggregation. This work shows that genotoxic stress can affect protein folding by limiting the availability of chaperones, which increases protein aggregation. Remarkably, there is a substantial overlap between proteins that aggregate in diseases that affect the brain ­ such as Alzheimer's disease ­ and proteins that aggregate after genotoxic stress. Therefore, further research could focus on determining whether genotoxic stress is involved in the progression of these neurological diseases.

DNAJB6b-enriched small extracellular vesicles decrease polyglutamine aggregation in in vitro and in vivo models of Huntington disease.

Huntington disease (HD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by aggregation of huntingtin (HTT) protein containing expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts. DNAJB6, a member of the DNAJ chaperone family, was reported to efficiently inhibit polyQ aggregation in vitro, in cell models, and in vivo in flies, xenopus, and mice. For the delivery of exogenous DNAJB6 to the brain, the DNAJB6 needs to be protected against (enzymatic) degradation and show good penetration into brain tissue. Here, we tested the potential of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from neural stem cells (NSCs) for delivery of DNAJB6 as anti-amyloidogenic cargo. Administration of sEVs isolated from DNAJB6-overexpressing cells to cells expressing expanded polyQ tracts suppressed HTT aggregation. Furthermore, intrathecal injection of DNAJB6-enriched sEVs into R6/2 transgenic HD mice significantly reduced mutant HTT aggregation in the brain. Taken together, our data suggest that sEV-mediated molecular chaperone delivery may hold potential to delay disease onset in HD.

Activation of IRE1, PERK and salt-inducible kinases leads to Sec body formation in Drosophila S2 cells.

The phase separation of the non-membrane bound Sec bodies occurs in Drosophila S2 cells by coalescence of components of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites under the stress of amino acid starvation. Here, we address which signaling pathways cause Sec body formation and find that two pathways are critical. The first is the activation of the salt-inducible kinases (SIKs; SIK2 and SIK3) by Na+ stress, which, when it is strong, is sufficient. The second is activation of IRE1 and PERK (also known as PEK in flies) downstream of ER stress induced by the absence of amino acids, which needs to be combined with moderate salt stress to induce Sec body formation. SIK, and IRE1 and PERK activation appear to potentiate each other through the stimulation of the unfolded protein response, a key parameter in Sec body formation. This work shows the role of SIKs in phase transition and re-enforces the role of IRE1 and PERK as a metabolic sensor for the level of circulating amino acids and salt. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

FOXO1 controls protein synthesis and transcript abundance of mutant polyglutamine proteins, preventing protein aggregation.

FOXO1, a transcription factor downstream of the insulin/insulin like growth factor axis, has been linked to protein degradation. Elevated expression of FOXO orthologs can also prevent the aggregation of cytosine adenine guanine (CAG)-repeat disease causing polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins but whether FOXO1 targets mutant proteins for degradation is unclear. Here, we show that increased expression of FOXO1 prevents toxic polyQ aggregation in human cells while reducing FOXO1 levels has the opposite effect and accelerates it. Although FOXO1 indeed stimulates autophagy, its effect on polyQ aggregation is independent of autophagy, ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) mediated protein degradation and is not due to a change in mutant polyQ protein turnover. Instead, FOXO1 specifically downregulates protein synthesis rates from expanded pathogenic CAG repeat transcripts. FOXO1 orchestrates a change in the composition of proteins that occupy mutant expanded CAG transcripts, including the recruitment of IGF2BP3. This mRNA binding protein enables a FOXO1 driven decrease in pathogenic expanded CAG transcript- and protein levels, thereby reducing the initiation of amyloidogenesis. Our data thus demonstrate that FOXO1 not only preserves protein homeostasis at multiple levels, but also reduces the accumulation of aberrant RNA species that may co-contribute to the toxicity in CAG-repeat diseases.

DNAJB chaperones suppress destabilised protein aggregation via a region distinct from that used to inhibit amyloidogenesis.

Disturbances to protein homeostasis (proteostasis) can lead to protein aggregation and inclusion formation, processes associated with a variety of neurodegenerative disorders. DNAJB proteins are molecular chaperones that have been identified as potent suppressors of disease-related protein aggregation. In this work, a destabilised isoform of firefly luciferase (R188Q/R261Q Fluc; termed FlucDM) was overexpressed in cells to assess the capacity of DNAJBs to inhibit inclusion formation. Co-expression of all DNAJB proteins tested significantly inhibited the intracellular aggregation of FlucDM. Moreover, we show that DNAJB proteins suppress aggregation by supporting the Hsp70 (HSPA)-dependent degradation of FlucDM via the proteasome. The serine-rich stretch in DNAJB6 and DNAJB8, essential for preventing fibrillar aggregation, is not involved in the suppression of FlucDM inclusion formation. Conversely, deletion of the C-terminal TTK-LKS motif in DNAJB6 and DNAJB8, a region not required to suppress polyglutamine aggregation, abolished the ability to inhibit inclusion formation by FlucDM. Thus, our data suggest that DNAJB6 and DNAJB8 possess two distinct regions for binding substrates, one that is responsible for binding ß-hairpins that form during amyloid formation and another that interacts with exposed hydrophobic patches in aggregation-prone clients. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

First Virtual International Congress on Cellular and Organismal Stress Responses, November 5-6, 2020.

Members of the Cell Stress Society International (CSSI), Patricija van Oosten-Hawle (University of Leeds, UK), Mehdi Mollapour (SUNY Upstate Medical University, USA), Andrew Truman (University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA) organized a new virtual meeting format which took place on November 5-6, 2020. The goal of this congress was to provide an international platform for scientists to exchange data and ideas among the Cell Stress and Chaperones community during the Covid-19 pandemic. Here we will highlight the summary of the meeting and acknowledge those who were honored by the CSSI.

CAG Repeat Size Influences the Progression Rate of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3.

OBJECTIVE: In spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease (SCA3/MJD), the expanded cytosine adenine guanine (CAG) repeat in ATXN3 is the causal mutation, and its length is the main factor in determining the age at onset (AO) of clinical symptoms. However, the contribution of the expanded CAG repeat length to the rate of disease progression after onset has remained a matter of debate, even though an understanding of this factor is crucial for experimental data on disease modifiers and their translation to clinical trials and their design. METHODS: Eighty-two Dutch patients with SCA3/MJD were evaluated annually for 15 years using the International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS). Using linear growth curve models, ICARS progression rates were calculated and tested for their relation to the length of the CAG repeat expansion and to the residual age at onset (RAO): The difference between the observed AO and the AO predicted on the basis of the CAG repeat length. RESULTS: On average, ICARS scores increased 2.57 points/year of disease. The length of the CAG repeat was positively correlated with a more rapid ICARS progression, explaining 30% of the differences between patients. Combining both the length of the CAG repeat and RAO as comodifiers explained up to 47% of the interpatient variation in ICARS progression. INTERPRETATION: Our data imply that the length of the expanded CAG repeat in ATXN3 is a major determinant of clinical decline, which suggests that CAG-dependent molecular mechanisms similar to those responsible for disease onset also contribute to the rate of disease progression in SCA3/MJD. ANN NEUROL 2021;89:66-73.

How the COVID-19 pandemic highlights the necessity of animal research.

Recently, a petition was offered to the European Commission calling for an immediate ban on animal testing. Although a Europe-wide moratorium on the use of animals in science is not yet possible, there has been a push by the non-scientific community and politicians for a rapid transition to animal-free innovations. Although there are benefits for both animal welfare and researchers, advances on alternative methods have not progressed enough to be able to replace animal research in the foreseeable future. This trend has led first and foremost to a substantial increase in the administrative burden and hurdles required to make timely advances in research and treatments for human and animal diseases. The current COVID-19 pandemic clearly highlights how much we actually rely on animal research. COVID-19 affects several organs and systems, and the various animal-free alternatives currently available do not come close to this complexity. In this Essay, we therefore argue that the use of animals is essential for the advancement of human and veterinary health.

Disassembly of Tau fibrils by the human Hsp70 disaggregation machinery generates small seeding-competent species.

The accumulation of amyloid Tau aggregates is implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Molecular chaperones are known to maintain protein homeostasis. Here, we show that an ATP-dependent human chaperone system disassembles Tau fibrils in vitro We found that this function is mediated by the core chaperone HSC70, assisted by specific cochaperones, in particular class B J-domain proteins and a heat shock protein 110 (Hsp110)-type nucleotide exchange factor (NEF). The Hsp70 disaggregation machinery processed recombinant fibrils assembled from all six Tau isoforms as well as Sarkosyl-resistant Tau aggregates extracted from cell cultures and human AD brain tissues, demonstrating the ability of the Hsp70 machinery to recognize a broad range of Tau aggregates. However, the chaperone activity released monomeric and small oligomeric Tau species, which induced the aggregation of self-propagating Tau conformers in a Tau cell culture model. We conclude that the activity of the Hsp70 disaggregation machinery is a double-edged sword, as it eliminates Tau amyloids at the cost of generating new seeds.

DNAJB6, a Key Factor in Neuronal Sensitivity to Amyloidogenesis.

CAG-repeat expansions in at least eight different genes cause neurodegeneration. The length of the extended polyglutamine stretches in the corresponding proteins is proportionally related to their aggregation propensity. Although these proteins are ubiquitously expressed, they predominantly cause toxicity to neurons. To understand this neuronal hypersensitivity, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 and Huntington's disease patients. iPSC generation and neuronal differentiation are unaffected by polyglutamine proteins and show no spontaneous aggregate formation. However, upon glutamate treatment, aggregates form in neurons but not in patient-derived neural progenitors. During differentiation, the chaperone network is drastically rewired, including loss of expression of the anti-amyloidogenic chaperone DNAJB6. Upregulation of DNAJB6 in neurons antagonizes glutamate-induced aggregation, while knockdown of DNAJB6 in progenitors results in spontaneous polyglutamine aggregation. Loss of DNAJB6 expression upon differentiation is confirmed in vivo, explaining why stem cells are intrinsically protected against amyloidogenesis and protein aggregates are dominantly present in neurons.

Functional diversity between HSP70 paralogs caused by variable interactions with specific co-chaperones.

Heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) chaperones play a central role in protein quality control and are crucial for many cellular processes, including protein folding, degradation, and disaggregation. Human HSP70s compose a family of 13 members that carry out their functions with the aid of even larger families of co-chaperones. A delicate interplay between HSP70s and co-chaperone recruitment is thought to determine substrate fate, yet it has been generally assumed that all Hsp70 paralogs have similar activities and are largely functionally redundant. However, here we found that when expressed in human cells, two highly homologous HSP70s, HSPA1A and HSPA1L, have opposing effects on cellular handling of various substrates. For example, HSPA1A reduced aggregation of the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-associated protein variant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)-A4V, whereas HSPA1L enhanced its aggregation. Intriguingly, variations in the substrate-binding domain of these HSP70s did not play a role in this difference. Instead, we observed that substrate fate is determined by differential interactions of the HSP70s with co-chaperones. Whereas most co-chaperones bound equally well to these two HSP70s, Hsp70/Hsp90-organizing protein (HOP) preferentially bound to HSPA1L, and the Hsp110 nucleotide-exchange factor HSPH2 preferred HSPA1A. The role of HSPH2 was especially crucial for the HSPA1A-mediated reduction in SOD1-A4V aggregation. These findings reveal a remarkable functional diversity at the level of the cellular HSP70s and indicate that this diversity is defined by their affinities for specific co-chaperones such as HSPH2.

Protein Quality Control Pathways at the Crossroad of Synucleinopathies.

The pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, and many others converge at alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) aggregation. Although it is still not entirely clear what precise biophysical processes act as triggers, cumulative evidence points towards a crucial role for protein quality control (PQC) systems in modulating α-Syn aggregation and toxicity. These encompass distinct cellular strategies that tightly balance protein production, stability, and degradation, ultimately regulating α-Syn levels. Here, we review the main aspects of α-Syn biology, focusing on the cellular PQC components that are at the heart of recognizing and disposing toxic, aggregate-prone α-Syn assemblies: molecular chaperones and the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy-lysosome pathway, respectively. A deeper understanding of these basic protein homeostasis mechanisms might contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies envisioning the prevention and/or enhanced degradation of α-Syn aggregates.

Protein quality control: from mechanism to disease : EMBO Workshop, Costa de la Calma (Mallorca), Spain, April 28 - May 03, 2019.

The cellular protein quality control machinery with its central constituents of chaperones and proteases is vital to maintain protein homeostasis under physiological conditions and to protect against acute stress conditions. Imbalances in protein homeostasis also are keys to a plethora of genetic and acquired, often age-related, diseases as well as aging in general. At the EMBO Workshop, speakers covered all major aspects of cellular protein quality control, from basic mechanisms at the molecular, cellular, and organismal level to medical translation. In this report, the highlights of the meeting will be summarized.