Expression and regulation of redoxins at nociceptive signaling sites after sciatic nerve injury in mice.

Injury of the sciatic nerve results in regulations of pro- and anti-oxidative enzymes at sites of nociceptive signaling including the injured nerve, dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), dorsal horn of the spinal cord, thalamus and somatosensory cortex (Valek et al., 2015) [1]. The present DiB paper shows immunohistochemistry of redoxins including peroxiredoxins (Prdx1-6), glutaredoxins (Glrx1, 2, 3, 5), thioredoxins (Txn1, 2) and thioredoxin reductases (Txnrd1, 2) in the DRGs, spinal cord and sciatic nerve and thalamus in naïve mice and 7 days after Spared sciatic Nerve Injury (SNI) in control mice (Hif1α-flfl) and in mice with a specific deletion of hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (SNS-HIF1α(-/-)) in DRG neurons. The sciatic nerves were immunostained for the respective redoxins and counterstained with hematoxylin. The redoxin immunoreactivity was quantified with ImageJ. For the DRGs and spinal cord the data show the quantitative assessment of the intensity of redoxin immunoreactivity transformed to rainbow pseudocolors. In addition, some redoxin examples of the ipsi and contralateral dorsal and ventral horns of the lumbar spinal cord and some redoxin examples of the thalamus are presented.

Redoxins in peripheral neurons after sciatic nerve injury.

Peripheral nerve injury causes redox stress in injured neurons by upregulations of pro-oxidative enzymes, but most neurons survive suggesting an activation of endogenous defense against the imbalance. As potential candidates we assessed thioredoxin-fold proteins, called redoxins, which maintain redox homeostasis by reduction of hydrogen peroxide or protein dithiol-disulfide exchange. Using a histologic approach, we show that the peroxiredoxins (Prdx1-6), the glutaredoxins (Glrx1, 2, 3 and 5), thioredoxin (Txn1 and 2) and their reductases (Txnrd1 and 2) are expressed in neurons, glial and/or vascular cells of the dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and in the spinal cord. They show distinct cellular and subcellular locations in agreement with the GO terms for "cellular component". The expression and localization of Glrx, Txn and Txnrd proteins was not affected by sciatic nerve injury but peroxiredoxins were upregulated in the DRGs, Prdx1 and Prdx6 mainly in non-neuronal cells and Prdx4 and Prdx5 in DRG neurons, the latter associated with an increase of respective mRNAs and protein accumulation in peripheral and/or central fibers. The upregulation of Prdx4 and Prdx5 in DRG neurons was reduced in mice with a cre-loxP mediated deficiency of hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) in these neurons. The results identify Prdx4 and Prdx5 as endogenous HIF1α-dependent, transcriptionally regulated defenders of nerve injury evoked redox stress that may be important for neuronal survival and regeneration.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 regulates heat and cold pain sensitivity and persistence.

AIMS: The present study assessed the functions of the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) in sensory neurons in models of acute, inflammatory, ischemic, and neuropathic pain. The alpha subunit, HIF1α, was specifically deleted in neurons of the dorsal root ganglia by mating HIF1α(fl/fl) mice with SNScre mice. RESULTS: SNS-HIF1α(-/-) mice were more sensitive to noxious heat and cold pain stimulation than were HIF1α(fl/fl) control mice. They also showed heightened first-phase nociceptive responses in the formalin and capsaicin tests with increased numbers of cFos-positive neurons in the dorsal horn, and intensified hyperalgesia in early phases after paw inflammation and hind limb ischemia/reperfusion. The behavioral cold and heat pain hypersensitivity was explained by increased calcium fluxes after transient receptor potential channel activation in primary sensory neurons of SNS-HIF1α(-/-) mice and lowered electrical activation thresholds of sensory fibers. SNS-HIF1α(-/-) mice however, developed less neuropathic pain after sciatic nerve injury, which was associated with an abrogation of HIF1-mediated gene up-regulation. INNOVATION: The results suggest that HIF1α is protective in terms of acute heat and cold pain but in case of ongoing activation in injured neurons, it may promote the development of neuropathic pain. CONCLUSION: The duality of HIF1 in pain regulation may have an impact on the side effects of drugs targeting HIF1, which are being developed, for example, as anticancer agents. Specifically, in patients with cancer neuropathy, however, temporary HIF1 inhibition might provide a welcome combination of growth and pain reduction.

Inhibitor kappa B kinase beta dependent cytokine upregulation in nociceptive neurons contributes to nociceptive hypersensitivity after sciatic nerve injury.

UNLABELLED: Inhibitor kappa B kinase (IKK)-mediated nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation is a major pathway for transcriptional control of various pro-inflammatory factors. We here assessed whether activation of this pathway specifically in primary nociceptive neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contributes to the development of nociceptive hypersensitivity. Mice carrying a cre-loxP-mediated deletion of inhibitor kappa B kinase beta (IKKß) in DRG neurons were protected from nerve injury-evoked allodynia and hyperalgesia. This effect was mimicked by systemic treatment with an IKKß inhibitor but was not observed upon specific inhibition of IKKß in the spinal cord, suggesting a specific role of IKKß in the peripheral neurons. The deletion of IKKß in DRG neurons did not affect constitutive neuronal NF-κB activity, but reduced nerve injury-evoked NF-κB stimulation in the DRG and was associated with reduced upregulation of interleukin-16, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/chemokine (CC motif) ligand 2 (MCP-1/CCL2), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) in the DRG. These cytokines evoked a rapid rise of intracellular calcium in subsets of primary DRG neurons. The results suggest that IKKß-mediated NF-κB stimulation in injured primary sensory neurons promotes cytokine and chemokine production and contributes thereby to the development of chronic pain. PERSPECTIVE: Inhibitors of IKK that do not pass the blood-brain barrier and act only in the periphery might be useful for reduction of the pro-inflammatory response in peripheral DRG neurons and reduce thereby nerve injury-evoked pain without affecting neuroprotective effects of NF-κB in the central nervous system.

Inhibitor kappaB Kinase beta deficiency in primary nociceptive neurons increases TRP channel sensitivity.

Inhibitor kappaB kinase (IKK) regulates the activity of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B that normally protects neurons against excitotoxicity. Constitutively active IKK is enriched at axon initial segments and nodes of Ranvier (NR). We used mice with a Cre-loxP-mediated specific deletion of IKKbeta in sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion (SNS-IKKbeta(-/-)) to evaluate whether IKK plays a role in sensory neuron excitability and nociception. We observed increased sensitivity to mechanical, cold, noxious heat and chemical stimulation in SNS-IKKbeta(-/-) mice, with normal proprioceptive and motor functions as revealed by gait analysis. This was associated with increased calcium influx and increased inward currents in small- and medium-sized primary sensory neurons of SNS-IKKbeta(-/-) mice during stimulation with capsaicin or Formalin, specific activators of transient receptor potentials TRPV1 and TRPA1 calcium channels, respectively. In vitro stimulation of saphenous nerve preparations of SNS-IKKbeta(-/-) mice showed increased neuronal excitability of A- and C-fibers but unchanged A- and C-fiber conduction velocities, normal voltage-gated sodium channel currents, and normal accumulation of ankyrin G and the sodium channels Nav1.6 at NR. The results suggest that IKKbeta functions as a negative modulator of sensory neuron excitability, mediated at least in part by modulation of TRP channel sensitivity.