SARS CoV-2-Induced Viral Sepsis: The Role of Gut Barrier Dysfunction.

A considerable proportion of patients with severe COVID-19 meet Sepsis-3 criteria and share common pathophysiological mechanisms of multiorgan injury with bacterial sepsis, in absence of secondary bacterial infections, a process characterized as "viral sepsis". The intestinal barrier exerts a central role in the pathophysiological sequence of events that lead from SARS-CoV-2 infection to severe systemic complications. Accumulating evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 disrupts the integrity of the biological, mechanical and immunological gut barrier. Specifically, microbiota diversity and beneficial bacteria population are reduced, concurrently with overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria (dysbiosis). Enterocytes' tight junctions (TJs) are disrupted, and the apoptotic death of intestinal epithelial cells is increased leading to increased gut permeability. In addition, mucosal CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, Th17 cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells and macrophages are activated, and T-regulatory cells are decreased, thus promoting an overactivated immune response, which further injures the intestinal epithelium. This dysfunctional gut barrier in SARS-CoV-2 infection permits the escape of luminal bacteria, fungi and endotoxin to normally sterile extraintestinal sites and the systemic circulation. Pre-existing gut barrier dysfunction and endotoxemia in patients with comorbidities including cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes and immunosuppression predisposes to aggravated endotoxemia. Bacterial and endotoxin translocation promote the systemic inflammation and immune activation, which characterize the SARS-CoV-2 induced "viral sepsis" syndrome associated with multisystemic complications of severe COVID-19.

The Role of Procalcitonin in the Diagnosis of Meningitis: A Literature Review.

OBJECTIVE: To review the current published literature on the use of procalcitonin as a diagnostic and prognostic marker in adult patients with meningitis. METHODS: We conducted a PubMed search to identify all relevant publications regarding the diagnostic and prognostic value of serum procalcitonin in patients with a known or suspected central nervous system infection. We also reviewed the bibliographies of all identified manuscripts in an attempt to identify additional relevant references. RESULTS: A significant body of evidence suggests that serum procalcitonin has a promising role and can be a useful biomarker in the assessment of patients with meningitis. CONCLUSIONS: Our literature review suggests that data on the role of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) procalcitonin are limited, whereas serum procalcitonin (S⁻PCT) is probably a useful tool in the evaluation of patients with a known or suspected central nervous system infection and can help distinguish between bacterial and viral meningitis.

Use of Sodium Bicarbonate in Cardiac Arrest: Current Guidelines and Literature Review.

The aim of the review was to summarize the literature over the last 25 years regarding bicarbonate administration in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. A PubMed search was conducted using the terms "bicarbonates" and "cardiac arrest", limited to human studies and reviews published in English (or at least with a meaningful abstract in English) in the last 25 years. Clinical and experimental data raised questions regarding the safety and effectiveness of sodium bicarbonate (SB) administration during cardiac arrest. Earlier advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) guidelines recommended routine bicarbonate administration as part of the ACLS algorithm, but recent guidelines no longer recommend its use. The debate in the literature is ongoing, but at the present time, SB administration is only recommended for cardiac arrest related to hypokalemia or overdose of tricyclic antidepressants. Several studies challenge the assumption that bicarbonate administration is beneficial for treatment of acidosis in cardiac arrest. At the present time, there is a trend against using bicarbonates in cardiac arrest, and this trend is supported by guidelines published by professional societies and organizations.

Hypomagnesemia in Critically Ill Sepsis Patients.

Magnesium (Mg), also known as "the forgotten electrolyte", is the fourth most abundant cation overall and the second most abundant intracellular cation in the body. Mg deficiency has been implicated in the pathophysiology of many diseases. This article is a review of the literature regarding Mg abnormalities with emphasis on the implications of hypomagnesemia in critical illness and on treatment options for hypomagnesemia in critically ill patients with sepsis. Hypomagnesemia is common in critically ill patients, and there is strong, consistent clinical evidence, largely from observational studies, showing that hypomagnesemia is significantly associated with increased need for mechanical ventilation, prolonged ICU stay and increased mortality. Although the mechanism linking hypomagnesemia with poor clinical outcomes is not known, experimental data suggest mechanisms contributing to such outcomes. However, at the present time, there is no clear evidence that magnesium supplementation improves outcomes in critically ill patients with hypomagnesemia. Large, well-designed clinical trials are needed to evaluate the role of magnesium therapy for improving outcomes in critically ill patients with sepsis.

Granulomas Formation in Lymph Nodes, Liver and Spleen in Adult-Onset Still's Disease: A Case Report.

Tissue granulomas formation in adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) is extremely rare. We describe a case of AOSD associated with formation of granulomatous lesions in lymph nodes, liver and presumably spleen. The high dose steroid-dependent nature of our patient's illness, characterized by disease relapses when methylprednisolone dose was reduced below 10 mg/d, was overwhelmed with institution of anakinra (100 mg/d). The histologic finding of granulomas formation in lymph nodes, liver or spleen should not deter the consideration of AOSD as a potential diagnosis in a compatible clinical context; however, other more common etiologies of tissue granulomas formation should be first excluded.

Suppurative necrotizing granulomatous lymphadenitis in adult-onset Still's disease: a case report.

INTRODUCTION: Lymphadenopathy is found in about 65% of patients with adult-onset Still's disease and is histologically characterized by an intense, paracortical immunoblastic hyperplasia. Adult-onset Still's disease has not been previously described as an etiology of suppurative necrotizing granulomatous lymphadenitis. CASE PRESENTATION: We describe a 27-year-old Greek man who manifested prolonged fever, abdominal pain, increased inflammatory markers, episodic skin rash and mesenteric lymphadenopathy histologically characterized by necrotizing granulomatous adenitis with central suppuration. Disease flares were characterized by systemic inflammatory response syndrome with immediate clinico-laboratory response to corticosteroids but the patient required prolonged administration of methylprednisolone at a dose of above 12mg/day for disease control. After an extensive diagnostic work-up, which ruled out any infectious, malignant, rheumatic or autoinflammatory disease the patient was diagnosed as having adult-onset Still's disease. The patient is currently treated with 4mg of methylprednisolone, 100mg of anakinra daily and methotrexate 7.5mg for two consecutive days per week and exerts full disease remission for six months. CONCLUSION: To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of suppurative necrotizing granulomatous lymphadenitis attributed to adult-onset Still's disease. This case indicates that the finding of a suppurative necrotizing granulomatous lymphadenitis should not deter the consideration of adult-onset Still's disease as a potential diagnosis in a compatible clinical context; however, the exclusion of other diagnoses is a prerequisite.

Prolonged high-dose intravenous magnesium therapy for severe tetanus in the intensive care unit: a case series.

INTRODUCTION: Tetanus rarely occurs in developed countries, but it can result in fatal complications including respiratory failure due to generalized muscle spasms. Magnesium infusion has been used to treat spasticity in tetanus, and its effectiveness is supported by several case reports and a recent randomized controlled trial. CASE PRESENTATIONS: Three Caucasian Greek men aged 30, 50 and 77 years old were diagnosed with tetanus and admitted to a general 12-bed intensive care unit in 2006 and 2007 for respiratory failure due to generalized spasticity. Intensive care unit treatment included antibiotics, hydration, enteral nutrition, early tracheostomy and mechanical ventilation. Intravenous magnesium therapy controlled spasticity without the need for additional muscle relaxants. Their medications were continued for up to 26 days, and adjusted as needed to control spasticity. Plasma magnesium levels, which were measured twice a day, remained in the 3 to 4.5 mmol/L range. We did not observe hemodynamic instability, arrhythmias or other complications related to magnesium therapy in these patients. All patients improved, came off mechanical ventilation, and were discharged from the intensive care unit in a stable condition. CONCLUSION: In comparison with previous reports, our case series contributes the following meaningful additional information: intravenous magnesium therapy was used on patients already requiring mechanical ventilation and remained effective for up to 26 days (significantly longer than in previous reports) without significant toxicity in two patients. The overall outcome was good in all our patients. However, the optimal dose, optimal duration and maximum safe duration of intravenous magnesium therapy are unknown. Therefore, until more data on the safety and efficacy of magnesium therapy are available, its use should be limited to carefully selected tetanus cases.

Sepsis requiring intensive care following intramuscular injections: two case reports.

INTRODUCTION: Intramuscular injections can rarely result in serious infectious complications such as abscesses which may progress to bacteraemia and generalized sepsis. These complications are rare, but can be life threatening, as they can lead to multi-organ failure associated with high morbidity and mortality. CASE PRESENTATION: In this report we present two patients who developed life-threatening infections after intramuscular injections. They were admitted to the hospital, had prompt surgical drainage, required ICU admission for severe sepsis, were treated with an early goal-directed therapy protocol and had a good outcome. CONCLUSION: Sepsis is a rare, potentially life-threatening complication after intramuscular injections. Timely surgical drainage followed by appropriate ICU care and early goal directed therapy is crucial and may contribute to a good outcome in these rare cases.