Malnutrition and socio-demographic factors associated with pulmonary tuberculosis in Timor and Rote Islands, Indonesia.

OBJECTIVE: To identify nutritional and socio-demographic factors for the development of tuberculosis (TB) in Timor and Rote Island, Indonesia, so that intervention programmes can be developed to address these factors. METHODS: In a case-control study, we enrolled new sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB patients as cases, and neighbours matched for sex and age as controls. Data obtained included history of TB, socio-demographic factors and nutritional status. RESULTS: In the study, 121 TB patients and 371 controls participated. The mean age was 30 years: 56.3% were male and 43.7% female. Of the TB patients, 87% had malnutrition compared to 33% among controls. The mean body mass index (BMI) of the patients was significantly lower than that of the controls (16.1 +/- 2.3 kg/m(2) vs. 19.4 +/- 3.0 kg/m(2)). Factors associated with the development of TB were BMI (OR 0.5, 95%CI 0.4-0.6), family history of TB (OR 3.2, 95%CI 1.6-6.4), living in an extended family (OR 2.7, 95%CI 1.5-4.8), being non-indigenous to Timor and Rote Islands (OR 2.9, 95%CI 1.2-6.8) and being unemployed (OR 3.8, 95%CI 1.7-8.6). CONCLUSION: Among patients with active pulmonary TB, the prevalence of malnutrition was very high. Malnutrition, which is a general problem for the whole community and particularly among people not indigenous to Timor and Rote, should be addressed in the fight against TB.

Vitamin A deficiency and other factors associated with severe tuberculosis in Timor and Rote Islands, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Plasma zinc and vitamin A concentrations have been reported to be low in tuberculosis (TB) patients in some studies, although it is not clear whether this constitutes a risk for a more severe clinical presentation among TB patients. The acute phase reaction may also deplete zinc and vitamin A in the plasma. Therefore, we further studied these associations. METHODS: We carried out a cross-sectional study among newly diagnosed sputum smear-positive TB patients in East Nusa Tenggara. The patients were categorized as either mild TB when Karnofsky Score (KS) > or =80 or severe TB (KS <80). Body mass index (BMI), mid upper arm circumference (MUAC), chest radiograph, and the results of hemoglobin, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, albumin, C-reactive protein (CRP), zinc and vitamin A in plasma were correlated with TB category. RESULTS: A total of 300 TB patients participated in the study (63% male and 37% female), and were categorized as mild TB (53%) or severe TB (47%). Vitamin A, hemoglobin and plasma albumin were significantly lower, and CRP was significantly higher, in severe TB than in mild TB, and the active lesion area on the chest radiograph was greater among severe TB patients. In a multiple regression analysis, after adjustment for CRP, low vitamin A (beta=3.2, 95%CI (confidence interval) 1.6-4.9, P=0.000) but not zinc, correlated with the severity of TB. MUAC was better than BMI as a predictor of TB severity (beta=1.3, 95%CI 0.6-6.2, P=0.000). CONCLUSIONS: Severe TB was associated with vitamin A deficiency. MUAC can be applied as a measure of TB severity.

Social aspects of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Indonesia.

Tuberculosis (TB) patients have not only medical but also social problems related to their illness, which may influence their motivation for the completion of treatment. This study investigated the social aspects of patients with TB in an urban area of Jakarta, Indonesia. Most TB patients had poor nutritional status and lived in crowded environments. They faced joblessness and negative attitudes from their neighbors and relatives. A few of the patients were afraid that they would not find a partner; others said that their diseases impaired their marriages. We found that patients with a subnormal body mass index restricted their social contact with their family more than patients with a normal body mass index. In general, patients were supported by their families, both financially and socially. Our findings suggest that priority should be given to developing programs aimed at strengthening the family support of TB patients.

Poor micronutrient status of active pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Indonesia.

Malnutrition is observed frequently in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), but their nutritional status, especially of micronutrients, is still poorly documented. The objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional status of patients with active TB compared with that of healthy controls in Jakarta, Indonesia. In a case-control study, 41 out-patients aged 15-55 y with untreated active pulmonary TB were compared with 41 healthy controls selected from neighbors of the patients and matched for age and sex. Cases had clinical and radiographic abnormalities consistent with pulmonary TB and at least two sputum specimens showing acid-fast bacilli. Anthropometric and micronutrient status data were collected. Compared with the controls, TB patients had significantly lower body mass index, skinfold thicknesses (triceps, biceps, subscapular, suprailiac), mid-upper arm circumference, proportion of fat, and concentrations of serum albumin, blood hemoglobin, plasma retinol and plasma zinc, whereas plasma zinc protoporphyrin concentration, as a measure of free erythrocyte protoporphyrin concentration, was greater. When patients and controls were subdivided on the basis of nutritional status, concentrations of serum albumin, blood hemoglobin, and zinc and retinol in plasma were lower in malnourished TB patients than in well-nourished healthy controls, well-nourished TB patients and malnourished healthy controls. In conclusion, the nutritional status of patients with active pulmonary TB was poor compared with healthy subjects, i.e., significantly more patients were anemic and more had low plasma concentrations of retinol and zinc. Low concentrations of hemoglobin, and of retinol and zinc in plasma were more pronounced in malnourished TB patients.

Increased production of interleukin 4 by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from patients with tuberculosis is related to the presence of pulmonary cavities.

In tuberculosis, cellular immunity is considered to be responsible for the eradication of infection but also for damage of host tissues. In animal models, the balance between Th1-type cytokines, especially interferon (IFN)-gamma, and Th2-type cytokines, primarily interleukin (IL)-4, seems crucial for these effects. Reports on Th1-type and Th2-type cytokines in human tuberculosis are conflicting, and little is known about their role in tissue damage. Flow-cytometric assessment of cytokine responses was performed in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seronegative patients with active tuberculosis and in healthy controls. Patients and controls showed no significant difference in expression of IFN-gamma. However, patients showed a striking increase in production of IL-4 in CD4+ as well as CD8+ T cells. Most remarkably, the expression of IL-4 was especially elevated in patients with cavitary tuberculosis. The Th2-type response with increased production of IL-4 in patients with tuberculosis may antagonize host defense and lead to tissue necrosis.

Anthelminthic treatment raises plasma iron levels but does not decrease the acute-phase response in Jakarta school children.

The study was conducted to investigate the impact of intestinal helminthiasis and treatment on iron status and acute phase response (APR) among urban Indonesian primary school children, aged 8-11 years old. The prevalence of helminthiasis among these children was; Ascaris lumbricoides, 81.6%; Trichuris trichiura, 88.3%; and mixed infection of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura, 70.0%. Of 120 children enrolled in the investigation, 59 received a single 400 mg dose of albendazole, and 61 received a placebo. Ten days following treatment, the prevalence of ascariasis and trichuriasis in the treatment group diminished to 0% and 27%, respectively, and in the placebo group to 63.9% and 68.9%. Plasma iron, hemoglobin, C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), white blood cell (WBC), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) concentrations were determined prior to the intervention and 10 days after. Plasma iron concentrations and WBC count rose in the treatment group (p=< or =0.05) when compared to baseline status. Increases in hemoglobin concentrations observed in the treatment group 10 days post-treatment were not statistically significant. CRP, IL-1, IL-6 and TNF were found to be within normal limits for both groups both before and after treatment. ESR increased significantly in both treatment and placebo groups when compared the rates measured before treatment. These findings show that treatment with albendazole is associated not only with a decreased worm burden in school children, but also a rise in plasma iron.