Measuring educational leadership in Singapore: re-examining the psychometric properties of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.

Introduction: The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X) has been used frequently to assess leadership in different settings. Despite its popularity, there are many critiques of the MLQ-5X such as its questionable multidimensional structure, lack of connection to the theory and the different factor structures of the measurement tool. The purpose of this study was to re-examine the psychometric properties of the MLQ-5X in the Singapore educational context using two datasets. Methods: A total of 872 teachers (40.1% male and 59.9% female) from 20 secondary schools in Singapore completed two sets of MLQ-5X, one set for their immediate reporting officer and one set for their school leaders. Results: Congeneric Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Rho's coefficients, and AVE were used to analyze MLQ-5X's convergent validity and internal consistency. After five items were deleted, the MLQ-5X showed acceptable internal consistency and convergent validity. Eight measurement models were tested with the original 36 items and the reduced items MLQ-5X. Latent factor correlation matrix with confidence intervals was used to assess the discriminant validity of the MLQ-5X. The results provided support for a nine first-order factors and three second-order factors model (transformation [IIA, IIB, IM, IS, IC, CR], transactional (MBEA), and non-leadership (MBEP and LF). Discussion: The discriminant validity of the hierarchical measurement model of MLQ-5X is supported using dataset 2.

A qualitative study into the personal factors influencing secondary school teachers' motivating styles.

Background: All teachers aspire to create the most motivating classroom climate for their students. This is because students who are motivated demonstrate superior learning outcomes relative to students who are not motivated. According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), when teachers establish an autonomy-supportive climate in their classrooms, their students can benefit in numerous developmentally and educationally important ways. Whilst most teachers have an understanding that autonomy-supportive teaching can benefit their students, many of them are unwilling or unable to carry out autonomy-supportive strategies. This can be explained by the implicit and explicit forces (e.g., teaching philosophies and beliefs, personal experiences) imposed on them by their internal (namely, intrapsychic) and external (namely, social) environments. This paper focuses on the personal factors that influence teachers' adoption and employment of autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours. Method: Following a 10-week intervention program on implementing six autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours, we interviewed 59 teachers from 17 secondary schools in Singapore on their adoption and employment of the teaching strategies. Their number of years of teaching experience ranged from 1 to 31 years with a mean of 10.8 years of teaching experience, and 62.71% of them were female. Finding: From the interviews, we identified several teacher-related personal factors which we labelled "teaching philosophies and beliefs," "personal experiences," "motivation to teach," "personality," "teachers' mental and emotional states" and "teaching efficacy." Through identifying the personal factors, we hope to raise awareness amongst the teachers on the inner forces that can foster or frustrate their own expression of autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours. Given the many plausible benefits that can be derived from autonomy-supportive teaching, we hope that the information gained from this qualitative study can path the way for greater willingness and effort in implementing autonomy-supportive teaching in the classrooms.

Validation of Dance-Specific Balance Test: Evidence From Comparisons Between Dancers and Nondancers.

The aim of this study was to establish the utility of the dance-specific balance test in examining the stability in postural control for dancers. Specifically, the method involves using the time taken to stabilize upon perturbation to quantify postural stability. The dance-specific balance test involved performing a four-step dance-like routine followed by a forward hop onto the force plate with one's dominant leg, ending with an attempt to sustain balance for a 30-s period. Results from the dance-specific balance test indicated that dancers stabilize faster (0.45 ± 0.11 s) than nondancers (1.09 ± 0.59 s); t(35.39) = -6.16, p < .001, Cohen's d = 1.46. Dancers are found to be faster to adapt after a perturbation than nondancers, and this suggests the usability of this tool for assessing stability in dancers.

Effects of a Brief Strange Loop Task on Immediate Word Length Comparison: A Mindfulness Study on Non-striving.

Non-striving is an important aspect of mindfulness practice, but it has not been sufficiently researched. This study examines whether a strange loop-based task - Infinite Water Scooping Task - performed for 10 min, has an effect on non-striving behavior and performance in a subsequent word length comparison task. Results showed that performance (number of correct trials) did not differ significantly between the two groups, though the experimental group tended to perform worse. However, participants in the experimental group took a significantly shorter time to respond to the word length comparison task than those in the control group. It is inferred that shorter time taken reflects response without investing much effort to count with care, i.e., non-striving. The present study demonstrates that the brief strange loop task implemented in this study elicited non-striving behavior compared to the effects of the control task, and this adds to the understanding of non-striving in the context of mindfulness. The Infinite Water Scooping Task may be useful for illustrating and teaching non-striving within mindfulness practice.

How is your mindfulness?: Data on qualitative interpretations of the meaning of mindfulness.

Despite the growing interest in mindfulness over the last two decades, what mindfulness means to people can be different due to diversity in personal experience, social, and cultural background. To gain some insights on what mindfulness means to different people in different countries/regions, a research project entitled "How is your mindfulness" was conducted in early 2019. 247 adults from 35 countries/regions provided valid responses to an online questionnaire. Primarily, the questionnaire solicited open-ended responses about participants' interpretation of mindfulness and descriptions of their own their mindfulness skills. Participants also rated their mindfulness skill, self-esteem, and life satisfaction through single-item scales. Availability of the open-ended responses is valuable for researchers interested in further understanding mindfulness from a qualitative angle. The availability of data from single-item measures of mindfulness skills, self-esteem and life esteem also provides a quantitative dimension to this issue. Taken together, the current data set provides an initial record of how different people are interpreting mindfulness, and could be further developed to advance mindfulness research.

Competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the classroom: understanding students' motivational processes using the self-determination theory.

The purpose of the current study is to examine the relationships between need satisfaction, motivation, and outcomes as well as the differential effects of the three psychological needs. The sample consisted of 1549 students from 10 secondary schools in Singapore. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis showed that students' psychological needs are positively related to autonomous motivation, and this in turn, lead to higher enjoyment, value and lower pressure. On the other hand, the three psychological needs were negatively related to controlled motivation. Controlled motivation was positively related to pressure but negatively related to enjoyment and value. In terms of the differential effects of the three psychological needs, relatedness contributed strongly to autonomous motivation, compared to autonomy and competence. In contrast, while autonomy and relatedness contributed to controlled motivation negatively, competence positively predicted controlled motivation. Finally, competence was found to link to pressure in a negative way. In summary, the findings of the current study provide support to the propositions of SDT and add some insight to the differential effects of the three psychological needs.

Autonomy-Supportive Teaching and Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction among School Students: The Role of Mindfulness.

Grounded in self-determination theory, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between autonomy-supportive teaching, mindfulness, and basic psychological need satisfaction/frustration. Secondary school students (n = 390, Mage = 15) responded to a survey form measuring psychological constructs pertaining to the research purpose. A series of multiple regression analysis showed that autonomy-supportive teaching and mindfulness positively predicted need satisfaction and negatively predicted need frustration. In addition, the associations between autonomy-supportive teaching and need satisfaction/frustration were moderated by mindfulness. Students higher in mindfulness were more likely to feel need satisfaction and less likely to experience need frustration, even in a low autonomy-supportive teaching environment. These results speak to the relevance of creating autonomy-supportive teaching environments and highlight mindfulness as a potential pathway to basic psychological need satisfaction in educational settings.

Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Version of the Mindfulness in Teaching Scale.

Measuring teacher mindfulness has implications for understanding and enhancing teachers' well-being. This study therefore aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Mindfulness in Teaching Scale (MTS-C). Two independent samples (Sample 1 includes 151 in-service teachers, Sample 2 includes 229 pre-service teachers) completed the MTS-C and theoretically relevant measures (i.e., attitudes, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction). In addition, a subsample of Sample 2 completed the MTS-C again one month later. Results of exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor model of the MTS-C. The MTS-C was generally associated with the concurrent measures. Furthermore, the scale also demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. These findings suggest that the MTS-C is a reliable and valid tool for research and practical applications among Chinese teachers.

Effect of Brief Mindfulness Induction on University Athletes' Sleep Quality Following Night Training.

Given the need to alleviate sleep problems confronting athletes, the present experiment, conducted as much as possible in a naturalistic fashion that mimics daily life, seeks to examine whether a brief mindfulness induction immediately prior to sleep following night training can improve athletes' sleep. A sample of university athletes (n = 80) was recruited and 63 of them were eligible to participate in this experiment. They were then randomly assigned into experimental group (n = 32) and control group (n = 31). Following night training and just prior to sleep, those in the experimental group received a self-administered brief 6-min mindfulness induction via a video clip, whereas the control group participants viewed a similar 6-min video devoid of mindfulness induction passively. Questionnaire-based measures of training intensity, pre-sleep arousal, state mindfulness, and sleep diary (i.e., level of rest, sleep duration, and overall sleep quality) were administered. Results showed that brief mindfulness induction reduced pre-sleep arousal, and improved level of rest and overall sleep quality, but not sleep duration. Pre-sleep arousal was also found to be a partial mediator in the relationship between the brief mindfulness induction and reported level of rest during sleep. These findings suggest that the brief mindfulness induction may be an effective approach for decreasing pre-sleep arousal and improving sleep quality after night training among athletes.

Motivations for Volunteering and Its Associations with Time Perspectives and Life Satisfaction: A Latent Profile Approach.

This study aims to examine motivation for volunteering and its association with time perspective and life satisfaction among volunteers ( N = 221). Latent profile analysis was used to profile individuals based on their time perspectives and then to compare group differences in life satisfaction and volunteering motivation. Three profiles were identified. Profile 1 ( n = 32; 14.5%) was a "balanced time perspective group," Profile 2 ( n = 102; 46.2%) was a "maladaptive group," and Profile 3 ( n = 87; 39.3%) was a "nonchalant group." Profile 1 showed the highest life satisfaction compared to the two remaining groups. Significant group differences in volunteering motivation between this group and the other two were also reported. These findings suggest that time perspective may be appropriate for understanding motivation for voluntarism and life satisfaction.

The power of now: brief mindfulness induction led to increased randomness of clicking sequence.

The capacity for random movement production is known to be limited in humans (e.g., Newell, Deutsch, & Morrison, 2000). We examined the effects of a brief mindfulness induction on random movement production because there are useful implications for variability in solving movement-related problems. The main task involved randomly clicking the 9 boxes in a 3 × 3 grid presented on a computer screen for five minutes. We characterized the sequence of clicking in terms of degrees of randomness, or periodicity, based on the fit, or probability, of the experimental data with its best fitting Bayesian network (4-click memory nodes) using the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach. Sixty-three participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control condition. Mixed design repeated-measures ANOVA results show that the short mindfulness induction had a positive effect on the randomness of the sequence subsequently produced. This finding suggests that mindfulness may be a suitable strategy for increasing random movement behavior.

Mindfulness, movement control, and attentional focus strategies: effects of mindfulness on a postural balance task.

We examined whether the momentary induction of state mindfulness benefited subsequent balance performance, taking into consideration the effects of dispositional mindfulness. We also tested whether our mindfulness induction, grounded in sustaining moment-to-moment attention, influenced the attentional focus strategies that were adopted by the participants during the balancing task. Balance performance was ascertained based on approximate entropy (ApEn) of the center of pressure (COP) data. The study involved 32 males (age: M = 22.8, SD = 1.94) who were randomly assigned to the mindfulness or control group. Using difference in pretest to posttest performance based on the medio-lateral movements as the dependent variable, the test for interaction showed that the mindfulness induction was more effective for participants with higher dispositional mindfulness. Participants who underwent mindfulness induction also reported greater use of external focus strategies than those in the control group. Results suggest that momentary mindful attention could benefit balance performance and affect the use of attentional focus strategies during movement control.

When small losses do not loom larger than small gains: effects of contextual autonomy support and goal contents on behavioural responses to small losses and small gains.

Based on the tenets of self-determination theory, the present studies examined the moderating effects of interpersonal contexts or goal conditions that afforded satisfaction of psychological needs on loss aversion effects. We hypothesized that behavioural responses to small losses would be stronger relative to behavioural responses to small gains under goal conditions or interpersonal contexts that did not support psychological needs. We also expected the effect to be minimized under goal conditions or interpersonal contexts that supported psychological needs. This prediction was supported in Study 1 that induced satisfaction of psychological needs via manipulations of interpersonal context and in Study 2 that instigated satisfaction of psychological needs via manipulations of goal contents. In addition, Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that psychological needs reduced the classic loss aversion effect by increasing behavioural and affective responses to gains and not because psychological needs altered affective or behavioural responses to losses. Results of the present studies support the conclusion that contextual autonomy support and the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic goals proposed by self-determination theory define a boundary condition of the loss aversion hypothesis.

Fear of failure and self-handicapping in college physical education.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between fear of failure and self-handicapping within the context of physical education. Participants were 103 college freshmen enrolled in aerobic dance physical education classes in Taiwan. They completed the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory and Self-Handicapping Scale for Sport 3 mo. after entering the class. Hierarchical regression indicated that scores on fear of failure predicted self-handicapping scores.

Implicit theory of athletic ability and self-handicapping in college students.

Self-handicapping is a maladaptive behavior which undermines students' achievements, but the antecedents of self-handicapping are not well studied in physical education. The aim was to examine the relations of implicit theory of abilities and self-handicapping in physical education. 264 college students, whose mean age was 20.3 yr. (SD = 1.7), completed the Conceptions of the Nature of Athletic Ability Questionnaire-2 and Self-handicapping Scale for Sport. Analysis indicated entity beliefs positively predicted reduced effort and making excuses. Also, incremental beliefs negatively predicted reduced effort. Results are discussed in terms of implicit theory of ability and self-handicapping. Directions for research and implications are stated.

Relationships between being traditional and sense of gratitude among Taiwanese high school athletes.

This study examined the association of scores on measures of traditionality and gratitude. Briefly defined, traditionality refers to how strongly one endorses the traditional value of submission to authority for harmony and benefits in a collective group. Traditional Taiwanese culture is linked with collectivism, and the society tends to encourage members to respect authority and harmony. As people of a collectivistic view seek to maintain harmony within the group, gratitude and reciprocity of good is expected from members. Nevertheless, traditionality of values differs among group members, as is also true for gratitude. It is not known how scores on traditionality might relate to feelings of gratitude among athletes in the competitive sports setting. 289 Taiwanese high school athletes were administered the Sport-domain Gratitude Questionnaire by Chen and Kee and the Traditionality Scale by Kao and Lu. Data, subjected to structural equation modeling, show that traditionality scores were related to those on gratitude. Implications and limitations were discussed.

Relation of dispositional optimism with burnout among athletes.

Optimism is important in enhancing human psychological and physical well-being; however, the association of optimism with burnout has received little attention in sport psychology. This study recruited 139 young volleyball players (M = 16.3 yr., SD = 0.8) to examine this relation. Athletes completed the Chinese version of the Life Orientation Test at Time 1 and 4 mo. later (Time 2). The Chinese version of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire was also administered. Analysis showed scores on optimism were negatively related to athletes' burnout scores.

Relation of perfectionism with athletes' burnout: further examination.

The purpose was to examine the different aspects of perfectionism and athletes' burnout. College athletes (N = 320) with mean age of 19.7 yr. (SD = 1.4) completed the Chinese version of the Multiple Perfectionism Scale for Sport and the Eades' Athlete Burnout Inventory. Results indicated that perfectionism could be separated into adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Adaptive perfectionism was linked to reduced athletes' burnout while maladaptive perfectionism was associated with athletes' burnout. In addition, significant interaction was found between adaptive perfec tionism and maladaptive perfectionism on athletes' burnout. Results suggest that high maladaptive perfectionism and low adaptive perfectionism corresponds to higher scores on athletes' burnout. Perfectionism should not be treated as an all-or-nothing disposition. The extent of athlete burnout can vary with the interaction effects of the two types of perfectionism. In terms of practical implications in intervention work, coaches and sport psychologists should try to reduce athletes' maladaptive perfectionism and increase adaptive perfectionism.