Cue Reactivity to Electronic Cigarettes: A Systematic Review.

Cue reactivity to Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems (ENDS) has been studied by several researchers, yet the variability in user types (smokers, former smokers, dual users, exclusive ENDS users) and ENDS designs used between the studies may have undermined consistent results. This systematic review aims to give an overview of ENDS cue reactivity and how smoking status and device design may moderate this. A systematic search of Medline, Embase, Web of Science, PubMed and Cochrane was completed. All studies which reported findings on reactivity to ENDS cues in the form of craving or desire for ENDS or cigarettes, attention to cue, delay of gratification or economic decisions were included. Exclusion criteria were non-human subjects, non-adult participants or participants with comorbidities. Literature selection was carried out by 2 independent reviewers. The risk of bias and study quality were assessed using tools developed by Cochrane, BMJ and NHLBI. A total of 711 papers were screened and 22 studies were included in the current review. Study design, research question(s), population of interest, number of participants, dependent variable(s), ENDS generation and nicotine content used and study results were extracted. ENDS cues reliably induced ENDS craving, with no clear moderation by smoking status and no apparent moderation by device generation. In about half of the studies, ENDS cues induced craving for conventional cigarettes. Most studies used a smoker sample, thus limiting the conclusions that can be drawn on the moderation of cue reactivity by smoking status. The quality varied among studies but comparing the findings against the outcomes of only high-quality studies did not yield any different results. The results of this review support the notion of cue reactivity to ENDS, identifies gaps in current research on different user types and implies that ENDS design iterations have little impact on cue reactivity.

Prosocial behavior toward machines.

Building on the computers are social actors framework, we provide an overview of research demonstrating that humans behave prosocially toward machines. In doing so, we outline that similar motivational and cognitive processes play a role when people act in prosocial ways toward humans and machines. These include perceiving the machine as somewhat human, applying social categories to the machine, being socially influenced by the machine, and experiencing social emotions toward the machine. We conclude that studying prosocial behavior toward machines is important to facilitate proper functioning of human-machine interactions. We further argue that machines provide an interesting yet underutilized resource in the study of prosocial behavior because they are both highly controllable and humanlike.

Virtual Reality Technology Use in Cigarette Craving and Smoking Interventions (I "Virtually" Quit): Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Over the last 2 decades, virtual reality technologies (VRTs) have been proposed as a way to enhance and improve smoking cessation therapy. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims to evaluate and summarize the current knowledge on the application of VRT in various smoking cessation therapies, as well as to explore potential directions for future research and intervention development. METHODS: A literature review of smoking interventions using VRT was conducted. RESULTS: Not all intervention studies included an alternative therapy or a placebo condition against which the effectiveness of the intervention could be benchmarked, or a follow-up measure to ensure that the effects were lasting. Virtual reality (VR) cue exposure therapy was the most extensively studied intervention, but its effect on long-term smoking behavior was inconsistent. Behavioral therapies such as a VR approach-avoidance task or gamified interventions were less common but reported positive results. Notably, only 1 study combined Electronic Nicotine Delivery Devices with VRT. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of a behavioral component, as is done in the VR approach-avoidance task and gamified interventions, may be an interesting avenue for future research on smoking interventions. As Electronic Nicotine Delivery Devices are still the subject of much controversy, their potential to support smoking cessation remains unclear. For future research, behavioral or multicomponent interventions are promising avenues of exploration. Future studies should improve their validity by comparing their intervention group with at least 1 alternative or placebo control group, as well as incorporating follow-up measures.