Validation of a youth suicide risk calculator in an adult sample with bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Bipolar disorder (BD) conveys the highest risk of suicide of all mental disorders. We sought to externally validate a risk calculator (RC) of suicide attempts developed in youth with BD from the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study in an adult sample. METHODS: A prospective cohort of adults with BD from the National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Depression Study (CDS; N = 427; mean (+/- SD) age at intake (36 +/- 13 years)) was secondarily analyzed to validate the COBY RC for one-year risk of suicide attempts/deaths. Nine of the ten predictor variables from the COBY RC were available in the CDS and used: age, age of mood disorder onset, first and second (partial) degree family history of suicide, history of psychotic symptoms, substance use disorder, prior suicide attempt, socioeconomic status, and non-suicidal self-injury (prospectively, incompletely at baseline). RESULTS: Over a mean (SD) follow-up of 19 (10) years, 29 % of the CDS sample attempted suicide. The RC predicted suicide attempts/deaths over one-year follow-up with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.78 (95 % CI 0.75-0.80). The RC performed slightly better in those with a younger age of mood disorder onset. LIMITATIONS: Clinical samples may limit generalizability; the RC does not assess more acute suicide risk. CONCLUSIONS: One-year risk of suicide attempts/deaths can be predicted with acceptable accuracy in youth and adults with BD, comparable to commonly used RCs to predict cardiovascular risk. This RC may help identify higher-risk individuals with BD for personalized treatment and research. https://cobysuicideattemptsrc.shinyapps.io/Shiny.

Risk factors preceding new onset abuse among youth with bipolar disorder: A longitudinal prospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: Childhood abuse negatively impacts the course of Bipolar Disorder (BD). Yet, no study has examined risk factors associated with prospectively evaluated physical/sexual abuse, specifically, those preceding first abuse among BD youth. We investigate past/intake/follow-up factors preceding first physical/sexual abuse among BD youth. METHODS: Childhood-onset BD participants (n = 279 youth, mean age at intake = 12, mean length of follow-up = 12 years) enrolled in the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study. Demographic, clinical and family history variables were assessed every 7 months on average using Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation and Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS-PL). Abuse was evaluated at intake using the K-SADS-PL, over follow-up with a Traumatic Events Screen. Family psychopathology was assessed using Family History Screen/Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic Statistical Manual-IV. RESULTS: Fifteen-percent of youth reported new-onset abuse during follow-up (62% physical, 26% sexual; 12% both). Intake predictors included more severe depressive symptoms (HR = 1.29), low socioeconomic-status (SES) in families with substance abuse (HR = 0.84) (physical abuse), and female sex (HR = 2.41) (sexual abuse). Follow-up predictors preceding physical abuse included: older age (HR = 1.42), disruptive disorders (HR = 1.39), and the interaction between low SES and family substance abuse (HR = 0.86). For sexual abuse, female sex (HR = 4.33) and a non-biologically related father presence in the household (HR = 2.76). Good relationships with friends (prospectively evaluated) protected against physical/sexual abuse (HR = 0.72/0.70, respectively). LIMITATIONS: Prospective data was gathered longitudinally but assessed retrospectively at every follow-up; perpetrator information and abuse severity were not available. CONCLUSIONS: Identifying factors temporally preceding new onset physical/sexual abuse may hold promise for identifying high-risk youth with BD.

Higher socioeconomic status and less parental psychopathology improve prognosis in youths with bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: To identify prospectively ascertained individual and family factors that are associated with improvement in Bipolar Disorder (BD) among youths who initially presented with poor course. METHODS: 82 youths with BD with persistent poor mood symptomatology ("predominantly ill course") were compared to 70 youths with BD who at intake had poor course, but showed improvement during the follow-up ("ill with improving course"), (ages 12.3 ± 3.3, vs. 11.7 ± 3.3 years old, at intake). Improvement was measured by the percentage of time euthymic during a mean follow-up of 12.8 years. Youths and parents were interviewed to assess psychopathology, functioning, treatment, and familial functioning and psychopathology. RESULTS: Compared to the ill group, since intake, the improving group showed significantly lower subthreshold depression and hypo/mania, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Parental Socioeconomic Status (SES) remained unchanged over time in the ill group, but progressively increased in the improving group. Importantly, the change in SES predated the improvement in the mood trajectory. The most influential variables that predicted improvement were higher SES, and absence of parental BD and Substance Use Disorder (SUD). Parental SUD also negatively affected the parental SES, which was directly associated with worse mood course. LIMITATIONS: Predominantly self-reported White samples may limit generalizability; other factors potentially associated with outcome (e.g., treatment adherence), were not ascertained. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to treating mood/comorbid psychopathology in symptomatic BD youths, to improve their prognosis, it is crucial to address their parent's BD and SUD and promote parental education/employment.

Relationship between cognitive flexibility and subsequent course of mood symptoms and suicidal ideation in young adults with childhood-onset bipolar disorder.

Neurocognitive deficits, such as cognitive flexibility impairments, are common in bipolar disorder (BD) and predict poor academic, occupational, and functional outcomes. However, the association between neurocognition and illness trajectory is not well understood, especially across developmental transitions. This study examined cognitive flexibility and subsequent mood symptom and suicidal ideation (SI) course in young adults with childhood-onset BD-I (with distinct mood episodes) vs. BD-not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) vs. typically-developing controls (TDCs). Sample included 93 young adults (ages 18-30) with prospectively verified childhood-onset DSM-IV BD-I (n = 34) or BD-NOS (n = 15) and TDCs (n = 44). Participants completed cross-sectional neuropsychological tasks and clinical measures. Then participants with BD completed longitudinal assessments of mood symptoms and SI at 6-month intervals (M = 39.18 ± 16.57 months of follow-up data). Analyses included ANOVAs, independent-samples t tests, chi-square analyses, and multiple linear regressions. Participants with BD-I had significant deficits in cognitive flexibility and executive functioning vs. BD-NOS and TDCs, and impaired spatial working memory vs. TDCs only. Two significant BD subtype-by-cognitive flexibility interactions revealed that cognitive flexibility deficits were associated with subsequent percentage of time depressed and with SI in BD-I but not BD-NOS, regardless of other neurocognitive factors (full-scale IQ, executive functioning, spatial working memory) and clinical factors (current and prior mood and SI symptoms, age of BD onset, global functioning, psychiatric medications, comorbidity). Thus, cognitive flexibility may be an important etiological brain/behavior mechanism, prognostic indicator, and intervention target for childhood-onset BD-I, as this deficit appears to endure into young adulthood and is associated with worse prognosis for subsequent depression and SI.

Validation of the youth mood recurrences risk calculator in an adult sample with bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: The ability to predict an individual's risk of mood episode recurrence can facilitate personalized medicine in bipolar disorder (BD). We sought to externally validate, in an adult sample, a risk calculator of mood episode recurrence developed in youth/young adults with BD from the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study. METHODS: Adult participants from the National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Depression Study (CDS; N=258; mean(SD) age=35.5(12.0) years; mean follow-up=24.9 years) were utilized as a sample to validate the youth COBY risk calculator for onset of depressive, manic, or any mood episodes. RESULTS: In this older validation sample, the risk calculator predicted recurrence of any episode over 1, 2, 3, or 5-year follow-up intervals, with Area Under the Curves (AUCs) approximating 0.77. The AUC for prediction of depressive episodes was about 0.81 for each of the time windows, which was higher than for manic or hypomanic episodes (AUC=0.72). While the risk calculator was well-calibrated across the range of risk scores, it systematically underestimated risk in the CDS sample by about 20%. The length of current remission was a highly significant predictor of recurrence risk in the CDS sample. LIMITATIONS: Predominantly self-reported White samples may limit generalizability; the risk calculator does not assess more proximal risk (e.g., 1 month). CONCLUSIONS: Risk of mood episode recurrence can be predicted with good accuracy in youth and adults with BD in remission. The risk calculators may help identify higher risk BD subgroups for treatment and research.

Facial emotion recognition and mood symptom course in young adults with childhood-onset bipolar disorder.

Facial emotion recognition deficits are common in bipolar disorder (BD) and associated with impairment. However, the relationship between facial emotion recognition and mood course is not well understood. This study examined facial emotion recognition and subsequent mood symptoms in young adults with childhood-onset BD versus typically developing controls (TDCs). The sample included 116 young adults (ages 18-30, 58% male, 78% White) with prospectively verified childhood-onset BD (n = 52) and TDCs (n = 64). At baseline, participants completed a facial emotion recognition task (Diagnostic Analysis of Non-Verbal Accuracy-2) and clinical measures. Then, participants with BD completed mood symptom assessments every 6 months (M = 8.7 ± 5.2 months) over two years. Analyses included independent-samples t tests and mixed-effects regression models. Participants with BD made significantly more recognition errors for child expressions than TDCs. There were no significant between-group differences for recognition errors for adult expressions, or errors for specific child or adult emotional expressions. Participants had moderate baseline mood symptoms. Significant time-by-facial emotion recognition interactions revealed more recognition errors for child emotional expressions predicted lower baseline mania and stable/consistent trajectory; fewer recognition errors for child expressions predicted higher baseline mania and decreasing trajectory. In addition, more recognition errors for adult sad expressions predicted stable/consistent depression trajectory and decreasing mania; fewer recognition errors for adult sad expressions predicted decreasing depression trajectory and stable/consistent mania. Effects remained when controlling for baseline demographics and clinical variables. Facial emotion recognition may be an important brain/behavior mechanism, prognostic indicator, and intervention target for childhood-onset BD, which endures into young adulthood and is associated with mood trajectory.

Longitudinal course of depressive symptom severity among youths with bipolar disorders: Moderating influences of sustained attention and history of child maltreatment.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric bipolar disorders are often characterized by disruptions in cognitive functioning, and exposure to child maltreatment (e.g., physical and sexual abuse) is associated with a significantly poorer course of illness. Although clinical and developmental research has shown maltreatment to be robustly associated with poorer cognitive functioning, it is unclear whether maltreatment and cognitive function jointly influence the clinical course of bipolar symptoms. METHODS: This secondary analysis examined moderating effects of lifetime childhood physical and sexual abuse, and cognitive disruptions (sustained attention, affective information processing), on longitudinal ratings of depression symptom severity in youths from the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study, examined from intake (M = 12.24 years) through age 22 (N = 198; 43.9% female; Mean age of bipolar onset = 8.85 years). RESULTS: A significant moderating effect was detected for sustained attention and maltreatment history. In the context of lower sustained attention, maltreatment exposure was associated with higher depression symptom severity during childhood, but not late adolescence. There was no association between maltreatment and symptom severity in the context of higher sustained attention, and no association between attention and depression symptom severity for non-maltreated youths. LIMITATIONS: Depression symptom ratings at each assessment were subject to retrospective recall bias despite the longitudinal design. Cognitive assessments were administered at different ages across youths. CONCLUSIONS: Depressive symptoms in pediatric bipolar may be jointly moderated by impairments in attention and exposure to maltreatment. Assessment of these risks, particularly in childhood, may be beneficial for considering risk of recurrence or chronicity of depressive symptoms.

Prospectively ascertained mania and hypomania among young adults with child- and adolescent-onset bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVES: While adults with bipolar disorder (BD) often report symptoms starting in childhood, continuity of mania and/or hypomania (mania/hypomania) from childhood to adulthood has been questioned. Using longitudinal data from the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study, we assessed threshold mania/hypomania in young adults who manifested BD as youth. METHODS: COBY is a naturalistic, longitudinal study of 446 youth with BD (84% recruited from outpatient clinics), 7-17 years old at intake, and over 11 years of follow-up. Focusing on youth with BD-I/II (n = 297), we examined adult mania/hypomania risk (>18 years old; mean 7.9 years of follow-up) according to child (<13 years old) versus adolescent (13-17 years old) onset. We next used penalized regression to test demographic and clinical predictors of young adult mania/hypomania. RESULTS: Most participants (64%) had child-onset mania/hypomania, 57% of whom also experienced mania/hypomania in adolescence. Among those who experienced an episode in adolescence, over 40% also had mania/hypomania during adulthood; the risk did not differ according to child versus adolescent onset. In contrast, 7% with mania/hypomania in childhood, but not adolescence, experienced mania/hypomania in adulthood. Family history (of mania and suicide attempts) predicted mania/hypomania in young adulthood (p-values <0.05); age of onset was not a significant predictor. Among participants with no mania/hypomania during adulthood, 53% (105/198) still experienced subthreshold manic episodes. DISCUSSION: We find substantial continuity across developmental stage indicating that, in this carefully characterized sample, children who experience mania/hypomania-particularly those who also experience mania/hypomania in adolescence-are likely to experience mania/hypomania in young adulthood.

A Bayesian multilevel analysis of the longitudinal associations between relationship quality and suicidal ideation and attempts among youth with bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Youth with bipolar disorder (BD) are at high risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors and frequently experience interpersonal impairment, which is a risk factor for suicide. Yet, no study to date has examined the longitudinal associations between relationship quality in family/peer domains and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among youth with BD. Thus, we investigated how between-person differences - reflecting the average relationship quality across time - and within-person changes, reflecting recent fluctuations in relationship quality, act as distal and/or proximal risk factors for suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempts. METHODS: We used longitudinal data from the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth Study (N = 413). Relationship quality variables were decomposed into stable (i.e., average) and varying (i.e., recent) components and entered, along with major clinical covariates, into separate Bayesian multilevel models predicting SI and suicide attempt. We also examined how the relationship quality effects interacted with age and sex. RESULTS: Poorer average relationship quality with parents (ß = -.33, 95% Bayesian highest density interval (HDI) [-0.54, -0.11]) or friends (ß = -.33, 95% HDI [-0.55, -0.11]) was longitudinally associated with increased risk of SI but not suicide attempt. Worsening recent relationship quality with parents (ß = -.10, 95% HDI [-0.19, -0.03]) and, to a lesser extent, friends (ß = -.06, 95% HDI [-0.15, 0.03]) was longitudinally associated with increased risk of SI, but only worsening recent relationship quality with parents was also associated with increased risk of suicide attempt (ß = -.15, 95% HDI [-0.31, 0.01]). The effects of certain relationship quality variables were moderated by gender but not age. CONCLUSIONS: Among youth with BD, having poorer average relationship quality with peers and/or parents represents a distal risk factor for SI but not suicide attempts. Additionally, worsening recent relationship quality with parents may be a time-sensitive indicator of increased risk for SI or suicide attempt.

Sex Differences in the Longitudinal Course and Outcome of Bipolar Disorder in Youth.

OBJECTIVE: Despite substantial literature on sex differences in adults with bipolar disorder (BD), little is known about this topic in youth; this study examines sex differences in mood symptomatology and psychiatric comorbidity in prospectively followed youth with BD. METHODS: A subsample of the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth study (N = 370; female n = 199, male n = 171) enrolled October 2000-July 2006 (age at intake = 7-17.11 years) who met DSM-IV criteria for bipolar I disorder (BD-I; n = 221), bipolar II disorder (BD-II; n = 26), or operationalized BD not otherwise specified (BD-NOS; n = 123) with ≥ 4 years follow-up was included. Analyses examined sex differences at intake and, prospectively, in mood symptomatology and psychiatric comorbidity for a mean ± SD follow-up of 10.5 ± 1.72 years. RESULTS: Females were older than males at intake (mean ± SD age = 13.33 ± 3.32 vs 12.04 ± 3.16 years; P = .0002) and at age at mood onset (9.33 ± 4.22 vs 7.53 ± 3.74 years; P < .0001). After adjustment for confounders, males spent more time with syndromal ADHD (Padjusted = .001) and females spent more time with syndromal anxiety (Padjusted = .02). There were trends toward males spending more time with substance use disorder and females having more non-suicidal self-injurious behavior (Padjusted = .07 and .09, respectively). There were no sex differences on outcome variables, including rate of or time to recovery and recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Contrasting with adult literature, this study identified minimal sex differences in the course of youth with BD. Longer-term studies are needed to clarify if youth-onset BD remains a "sex neutral" subtype of BD or diverges according to sex in adulthood.

Correlates, Course, and Outcomes of Increased Energy in Youth with Bipolar Disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Compare longitudinal trajectories of youth with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV Bipolar Disorder (BD), grouped at baseline by presence/absence of increased energy during their worst lifetime mood episode (required for DSM-5). METHODS: Participants from the parent Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth study (N = 446) were assessed utilizing The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (KSADS), KSADS Mania Rating Scale (KMRS), and KSADS Depression Rating Scale (KDRS). Youth were grouped at baseline into those with increased energy (meeting DSM-5 Criteria A for mania) vs. without increased energy (meeting DSM-IV, but not DSM-5, Criteria A for mania), for those who had worst lifetime mood episode recorded (n = 430). Youth with available longitudinal data had the presence/absence of increased energy measured, as well as psychiatric symptomatology/clinical outcomes (evaluated via the Adolescent Longitudinal Interval Follow-Up Evaluation), at each follow-up for 12.5 years (n = 398). RESULTS: At baseline, the increased energy group (based on endorsed increased energy during worst lifetime mood episode; 86% of participants) vs. the without increased energy group, were more likely to meet criteria for BD-I and BD Not Otherwise Specified, had higher KMRS/KDRS total scores, and displayed poorer family/global psychosocial functioning. However, frequency of increased energy between groups was comparable after 5 years, and no significant group differences were found on clinical/psychosocial functioning outcomes after 12.5 years. LIMITATIONS: Secondary data limited study design; groupings were based on one time point. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate no clinically relevant longitudinal group differences.

The Effect of Traumatic Events on the Longitudinal Course and Outcomes of Youth with Bipolar Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to severe Traumatic Events (TEs) has been associated with poor course and outcomes among individuals with Bipolar Disorder (BD). However, there is limited research on TEs among youth with BD, and few studies are longitudinal. This study prospectively followed a large sample of BD youth, examining the associations of lifetime TEs with their mood and functioning. METHODS: BD participants (n=375; mean age=17; range 8-25y) were assessed, on average, every 7 months for a median 8.7 years. Psychopathology and lifetime trauma history were prospectively evaluated using the Longitudinal Interval Follow-Up Evaluation, and a traumatic events screening. RESULTS: Accounting for covariates, participants with one or more lifetime TEs (84%) showed earlier BD onset, poorer psychosocial functioning, worse mood symptoms, and more suicidal ideation, comorbidities, and family psychopathology than those without TEs. TEs during recovery periods increased recurrence risk (p<0.02). More TEs were associated with poorer mood course, particularly among victims of violence/abuse (p<0.02). Abused participants (34% physical; 17% sexual) showed earlier onset of substance use disorders, more suicidality and comorbidities compared to those without abuse. Comparisons of mood course before and after abuse occurred, and with participants without abuse, showed worsening mood symptoms after, specifically hypo/mania (p<0.03). LIMITATIONS: Prospective data was gathered longitudinally but assessed retrospectively at every follow-up; given approximate dates causality cannot be inferred; TEs severity was not assessed. CONCLUSIONS: Severe TEs, particularly abuse, were associated with poorer course and outcomes among BD youth. Prompt screening of trauma and early intervention may be warranted to minimize TEs impact.

Course of longitudinal psychosocial functioning in bipolar youth transitioning to adults.

OBJECTIVES: Few studies have examined domain-specific psychosocial functioning in Bipolar Disorder (BD) youths. This prospective study examines (1) Interpersonal Relationships with Family; (2) Interpersonal Relationships with Friends; (3) School/Work; (4) Recreation; (5) Life Satisfaction, in BD youths. METHOD: A Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth subsample (n = 367; mean intake age = 12.6 years, SD = 3.3; 46.6% female) was previously grouped into 4 Classes based on their illness trajectories and percentage of time euthymic using Latent Class Growth Analysis: Class 1 Predominantly Euthymic; Class 2 Moderately Euthymic; Class 3 Ill with Improving Course; Class 4 Predominantly Ill. Psychosocial functioning within the domains were examined for greater than 10 years using the Adolescent Longitudinal Interval Follow-Up Evaluation. RESULTS: Class 1 demonstrated better functioning across all domains; Class 4 demonstrated worse functioning across all domains. Class 2 showed worsening relationships and recreation, and improvement in work/schoolwork. Class 3 showed variable domain declines and improvements. Despite symptomatic remission, 13%-20% of Class 1 and 20-47% of Classes 1/3 still had impairments across different domains. Early age of BD onset impacted impairment across most domains, and low SES significantly predicted impairment in family relationships. LIMITATIONS: The study does not have a healthy control group to compare functioning findings. CONCLUSIONS: Participants with more symptomatic mood trajectories had greater impairment across domains. Moreover, even with symptomatic remission, participants still exhibited impairment. Each Class and domain had different trajectories for impairment. Results suggest the importance of examining specific (vs. global) domains for targeted treatment, even when symptomatically remitted.

Interpersonal Relationships and Suicidal Ideation in Youth with Bipolar Disorder.

This study examines how relationship quality in family and peer domains are associated with suicidal ideation (SI) in youth with bipolar disorder (BP). We assessed 404 Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth study participants for psychiatric disorders and SI at intake and for family/peer relationships the month after intake. Multivariate logistic regression examined associations between relationships and SI, controlling for significant covariates. There were 144 youth (36%) who reported SI at intake; bivariate analyses indicated they had significantly worse family/peer relationships. Multivariate analyses showed that family/peer relationships were associated with current SI, controlling for significant covariates. Results support associations between poor relationships and SI in BP youth, regardless of current mood symptom severity. Clinicians should assess relationships when completing risk assessments with BP youth.

Correction.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.4088/JCP.09m05885blu.​​.

High Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome Among Adolescents and Young Adults With Bipolar Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Despite abundant literature demonstrating increased metabolic syndrome (MetS) prevalence and important clinical correlates of MetS among middle-age adults with bipolar disorder, little is known about this topic among adolescents and young adults early in their course of bipolar disorder. We therefore examined this topic in the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study. METHODS: A cross-sectional, retrospective study was conducted of 162 adolescents and young adults (mean ± SD age = 20.8 ± 3.7 years; range, 13.6-28.3 years) with bipolar disorder (I, II, or not otherwise specified, based on DSM-IV) enrolled in COBY between 2000 and 2006. MetS measures (blood pressure, glucose, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C], triglycerides, and waist circumference), defined using the International Diabetes Federation criteria, were obtained at a single timepoint. Mood, comorbidity, and treatment over the 6 months preceding the MetS assessment were evaluated using the Longitudinal Interval Follow-Up Evaluation. RESULTS: The prevalence of MetS in the sample was 19.8% (32/162). Low HDL-C (56.5%) and abdominal obesity (46.9%) were the most common MetS criteria. MetS was nominally associated with lower lifetime global functioning at COBY intake (odds ratio [OR] = 0.97, P = .06). MetS was significantly associated with percentage of weeks in full-threshold pure depression (OR = 1.07, P = .02) and percentage of weeks receiving antidepressant medications (OR = 1.06, P = .001) in the preceding 6 months. MetS was not associated with manic symptoms or medications other than antidepressants. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of MetS in this sample was at least double compared to the general population. Moreover, MetS is associated with increased burden of depression symptoms in this group. Management of early-onset bipolar disorder should integrate strategies focused on modifying MetS risk factors.

Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination.

Research has suggested that African American and Latinx adults may develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at higher rates than White adults, and that the clinical course of PTSD in these minority groups is poor. Factors that may contribute to higher prevalence and poorer outcome in these groups are sociocultural factors and racial stressors, such as experiences with discrimination. To date, however, no research has explored the relationship between experiences with discrimination and risk for PTSD, and very little research has examined the course of illness for PTSD in African American and Latinx samples. The present study examined these variables in the only longitudinal clinical sample of 139 Latinx and 152 African American adults with anxiety disorders, the Harvard/Brown Anxiety Research Project-Phase II. Over 5 years of follow-up, remission rates for African Americans and Latinx adults with PTSD in this sample were 0.35 and 0.15, respectively, and reported frequency of experiences with discrimination significantly predicted PTSD diagnostic status in this sample, but did not predict any other anxiety or mood disorder. These findings demonstrate the chronic course of PTSD in African American and Latinx adults, and highlight the important role that racial and ethnic discrimination may play in the development of PTSD among these populations. Implications for an increased focus on these sociocultural stressors in the assessment and treatment of PTSD in African American and Latinx individuals are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Predictors of longitudinal psychosocial functioning in bipolar youth transitioning to adults.

OBJECTIVES: In a sample of participants diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder (BD) in youth, we aim: (1) to examine longitudinal psychosocial functioning; (2) to determine whether psychosocial impairment remains in those who remitted from mood disorders during later periods of follow-up; (3) to examine predictors of psychosocial impairment despite symptomatic remission. METHOD: A Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth subsample of 367 (≥ 4 years follow-up data) were grouped into mood trajectories: Class 1 Predominantly Euthymic; Class 2 Moderately Euthymic; Class 3 Ill with Improving Course; Class 4 Predominantly Ill. Psychosocial functioning was assessed via Children's Global Assessment Scale (C-GAS) for those under age 22; Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale after 22. Current school, employment, and disability status were examined. Established predictors of symptomatic impairment were analyzed. RESULTS: The Predominantly Euthymic Class had better psychosocial functioning, and were more likely to be in school/employed. The Persistently Ill Class had worse psychosocial functioning, and were more likely to receive disability. However, 44% of Predominantly Euthymic and 93% of Ill with Improving Course participants continued to experience current psychosocial impairment. Early BD onset, low Socioeconomic Status (SES), and current comorbidity, predicted poor psychosocial functioning. Low SES, and current comorbidity, predicted no school enrollment/unemployment. LIMITATIONS: The study does not have a healthy control group to compare functioning findings. CONCLUSIONS: In general, youth with persistent mood symptoms had worse psychosocial functioning, moreover, those with remitted symptoms still exhibited current psychosocial functioning deficits. High risk individuals with predictors of impairment should be targeted for functioning interventions.