Mice with cardiac-restricted angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) have atrial enlargement, cardiac arrhythmia, and sudden death.

To investigate the local effects of angiotensin II on the heart, we created a mouse model with 100-fold normal cardiac angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), but no ACE expression in kidney or vascular endothelium. This was achieved by placing the endogenous ACE gene under the control of the alpha-myosin heavy chain promoter using targeted homologous recombination. These mice, called ACE 8/8, have cardiac angiotensin II levels that are 4.3-fold those of wild-type mice. Despite near normal blood pressure and a normal renal function, ACE 8/8 mice have a high incidence of sudden death. Both histological analysis and in vivo catheterization of the heart showed normal ventricular size and function. In contrast, both the left and right atria were three times normal size. ECG analysis showed atrial fibrillation and cardiac block. In conclusion, increased local production of angiotensin II in the heart is not sufficient to induce ventricular hypertrophy or fibrosis. Instead, it leads to atrial morphological changes, cardiac arrhythmia, and sudden death.

The use of knockout mouse technology to achieve tissue selective expression of angiotensin converting enzyme.

The resin angiotensin system (RAS) plays an essential role in blood pressure regulation and electrolyte homeostasis. The effecter peptide of the RAS, angiotensin II, is produced by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in multiple tissues. Genetic deletion of ACE in mice resulted a phenotype of low blood pressure, anemia and kidney defects. However, it is not clear whether the lack of the systemic or the local production of angiotensin II caused these defects. To understand the role of local angiotensin II production, we developed a method to achieve tissue specific ACE expression through homologous recombination. In this review, we discuss mouse models in which endothelial ACE was eliminated and replaced by hepatic ACE. These studies suggest that both circulating angiotensin II and local angiotensin II production play a role in angiotensin II generation; the elimination of local angiotensin II generation up-regulates systemic production and maintains physiologic homeostasis.

Newly recognized physiologic and pathophysiologic actions of the angiotensin-converting enzyme.

Despite several decades of research into the renin-angiotensin system, new aspects of this endocrine system are elucidated every few years, expanding its role not only in hypertension but also in diabetes, oncology, and cardiology. In this review, we describe newly recognized physiologic actions of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). These include the role of local versus systemic ACE in maintaining blood pressure, the physiology of bradykinin accumulation during ACE inactivation, and the role of alternate "non-angiotensin" substrates and potential non-enzymatic properties of ACE.

Role of the N-terminal catalytic domain of angiotensin-converting enzyme investigated by targeted inactivation in mice.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) produces the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II. The ACE protein is composed of two homologous domains, each binding zinc and each independently catalytic. To assess the physiologic significance of the two ACE catalytic domains, we used gene targeting in mice to introduce two point mutations (H395K and H399K) that selectively inactivated the ACE N-terminal catalytic site. This modification does not affect C-terminal enzymatic activity or ACE protein expression. In addition, the testis ACE isozyme is not affected by the mutations. Analysis of homozygous mutant mice (termed ACE 7/7) showed normal plasma levels of angiotensin II but an elevation of plasma and urine N-acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro, a peptide suggested to inhibit bone marrow maturation. Despite this, ACE 7/7 mice had blood pressure, renal function, and hematocrit that were indistinguishable from wild-type mice. We also studied compound heterozygous mice in which one ACE allele was null (no ACE expression) and the second allele encoded the mutations selectively inactivating the N-terminal catalytic domain. These mice produced approximately half the normal levels of ACE, with the ACE protein lacking N-terminal catalytic activity. Despite this, the mice have a phenotype indistinguishable from wild-type animals. This study shows that, in vivo, the presence of the C-terminal ACE catalytic domain is sufficient to maintain a functional renin-angiotensin system. It also strongly suggests that the anemia present in ACE null mice is not due to the accumulation of the peptide N-acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro.