Phytomedicine for neurodegenerative diseases: The road ahead.

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) are among the most common causes of death across the globe. NDs are characterized by progressive damage to CNS neurons, leading to defects in specific brain functions such as memory, cognition, and movement. The most common NDs are Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Despite extensive research, no therapeutics or medications against NDs have been proven to be effective. The current treatment of NDs involving symptom-based targeting of the disease pathogenesis has certain limitations, such as drug resistance, adverse side effects, poor blood-brain barrier permeability, and poor bioavailability of drugs. Some studies have shown that plant-derived natural compounds hold tremendous promise for treating and preventing NDs. Therefore, the primary objective of this review article is to critically analyze the properties and potency of some of the most studied phytomedicines, such as quercetin, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), apigenin, and cannabinoids, and highlight their advantages and limitations for developing next-generation alternative treatments against NDs. Further extensive research on pre-clinical and clinical studies for developing plant-based drugs against NDs from bench to bedside is warranted.

A Correlation Study to Comprehend the SAR-COV-2 Viral Load, Antiviral Antibody Titer, and Severity of COVID-19 Symptoms Post-infection Amongst the Vaccinated Population in Kamrup District of Assam, Northeast India.

BACKGROUND: As per the recommendation of the United States Food and Drug Administration, more research is needed to determine the antibody titer against COVID-19 vaccination. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to understand the relationship between the antibody titer to the demographics, infection severity, and cycle threshold (CT) values of confirmed COVID-19 patients. METHODS: Initially, we obtained consent from 185 populations and included sixty RT-PCRpositive COVID-19 patients from Kamrup District in the Northeast State of Assam, India. The vaccination status was recorded and tested for the level of serum immunoglobulin (IgG). The CT values, gender, and clinical symptoms-based scoring (CSBS) correlated with their IgG value. RESULTS: Around 48% of participants gained an antibody titer more than the threshold value and showed CT values between 18-25. Moreover, the maximum distributed score above the average was found between the CT values 18-25. CONCLUSION: The IgG titer value differs significantly amongst the vaccinated population, which may depend upon their genetic and demographic variability.

An optical sensing platform for the detection of anti-cancer drugs and their cytotoxicity screening using a highly selective phosphorene-based composite.

Monitoring therapeutic drugs and their elimination is crucial because they may cause severe side effects on the human body. Methotrexate (MTX) is a widely used anti-cancer drug, which is highly expensive, and the detection of unwanted overdoses of MTX using traditional procedures is time-consuming and involves complex instrumentation. In this work, we have developed a nanocomposite material using phosphorene, cystine, and gold (Ph-Cys-Au) that shows excellent optical properties. This nanocomposite can be used as an optical sensing platform for the detection of MTX in the range 0-260 µM. The synthesized sensing platform is very sensitive, selective, and cost-effective for the detection of MTX. Ph-Cys-Au can effectively detect MTX in aqueous media with a limit of detection (LOD) of about 0.0266 nM (for a linear range of 0-140 µM) and 0.0077 nM (for a linear range of 160-260 µM). The nanocomposite is equally selective for real samples, such as human blood serum (HBS) and artificial urine (AU) with a LOD of 0.0914 nM and 0.0734 nM, respectively. We have also determined the limit of quantification (LOQ); the LOQ values for the aqueous media were 0.0807 nM (for a linear range of 0-140 µM) and 0.0234 nM (for a linear range of 160-260 µM), whereas, the values for HBS and AU were around 0.2771 nM and 0.2226 nM, respectively. Moreover, the nanocomposite also provides a feasible platform for cytotoxicity screening in cancerous cells (Caco-2 cell lines) and non-cancerous cells (L-929 cell lines).

A single dietary factor, daily consumption of a fermented beverage, can modulate the gut bacteria and fecal metabolites within the same ethnic community.

IMPORTANCE: Our study investigated how a traditional drink called Apong, made from fermented rice, affects the gut and health of the Mishing community in India. We compared two groups of people who drink Apong to a group of people who do not drink it. To accomplish this, we studied the gut bacteria, fecal metabolites, and blood samples of the participants. It was found that the people who drank Apong had higher blood pressure but lower blood sugar and protein levels than people who did not drink it. We also found that the gut microbiome composition of people who drank Apong was different from those who did not drink it. Moreover, people who drank Apong had lower levels of isovaleric acid in their feces. Overall, this study shows that a traditional drink like Apong can affect the gut bacteria of a community.

Genome analysis of SARS-CoV-2 isolates from a population reveals the rapid selective sweep of a haplotype carrying many pre-existing and new mutations.

To understand the mechanism underlying the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in a population, we sequenced 92 viral genomes from Assam, India. Analysis of these and database sequences revealed a complete selective sweep of a haplotype in Assam carrying 13 pre-existing variants, including a high leap in frequency of a variant on ORF8, which is involved in immune evasion. A comparative study between sequences of same lineage and similar time frames in and outside Assam showed that 10 of the 13 pre-existing variants had a frequency ranging from 96 to 99%, and the remaining 3 had a low frequency outside Assam. Using a phylogenetic approach to infer sequential occurrences of variants we found that the variant Phe120del on ORF8, which had a low frequency (1.75%) outside Assam, is at the base of the phylogenetic tree of variants and became totally fixed (100%) in Assam population. Based on this observation, we inferred that the variant on ORF8 had a selective advantage, so it carried the haplotype to reach the100% frequency. The haplotype also carried 32 pre-existing variants at a frequency from 1.00 to 80.00% outside Assam. Those of these variants that are more closely linked to the S-protein locus, which often carries advantageous mutations and is tightly linked to the ORF8 locus, retained higher frequencies, while the less tightly linked variants showed lower frequencies, likely due to recombination among co- circulating variants in Assam. The ratios of non-synonymous substitutions to synonymous substitutions suggested that some genes such as those coding for the S-protein and non-structural proteins underwent positive selection while others were subject to purifying selection during their evolution in Assam. Furthermore, we observed negative correlation of the Ct value of qRT-PCR of the patients with abundant ORF6 transcripts, suggesting that ORF6 can be used as a marker for estimating viral titer. In conclusion, our in-depth analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes in a regional population reveals the mechanism and dynamics of viral evolution.

Comprehensive bacterial-metabolite profiles of Hawaijar, Bekang, and Akhone: a comparative study on traditional fermented soybeans of north-east India.

Preparation of traditionally fermented soybeans varies across ethnicities with distinct tastes, flavour, and nutritional values. The fermented soybean varieties Hawaijar, Bekang, and Akhone of north-east India are associated with diverse ethnic groups from Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland, respectively. These varieties differ in substrate and traditional practice that exerts differential bacterial-metabolite profile, which needs an in-depth analysis i. Culture-dependent and independent techniques investigated the bacterial diversity of the fermented soybean varieties. Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) studied these varieties' metabolite profiles. The common dominant bacterial genera detected in Hawaijar, Bekang, and Akhone were Bacillus, Ignatzschinaria, and Corynebacterium, with the presence of Brevibacillus and Staphylococcus exclusively in Hawaijar and Oceanobacillus in Bekang and Akhone. The metabolite analysis identified a higher abundance of essential amino acids, amino and nucleotide sugars, and vitamins in Hawaijar, short-chain fatty acids in Bekang, polyunsaturated fatty acids in Akhone and Hawaijar, and prebiotics in Akhone. The bacteria-metabolite correlation analysis predicted four distinct bacterial clusters associated with the differential synthesis of the functional metabolites. While B. subtilis is ubiquitous, cluster-1 comprised B. thermoamylovorans/B. amyloliquefaciens, cluster-2 comprised B. tropicus, cluster-3 comprised B. megaterium/B. borstelensis, and cluster-4 comprised B. rugosus. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comparative study on traditional fermented soybean varieties of north-east India linking bacterial-metabolite profiles which may help in designing starters for desired functionalities in the future.

Comparative pangenomic analysis of predominant human vaginal lactobacilli strains towards population-specific adaptation: understanding the role in sustaining a balanced and healthy vaginal microenvironment.

The vaginal microenvironment of healthy women has a predominance of Lactobacillus crispatus, L. iners, L. gasseri, and L. jensenii. The genomic repertoire of the strains of each of the species associated with the key attributes thereby regulating a healthy vaginal environment needs a substantial understanding.We studied all available human strains of the four lactobacilli across different countries, isolated from vaginal and urinal sources through phylogenetic and pangenomic approaches. The findings showed that L. iners has the highest retention of core genes, and L. crispatus has more gene gain in the evolutionary stratum. Interestingly, L. gasseri and L. jensenii demonstrated major population-specific gene-cluster gain/loss associated with bacteriocin synthesis, iron chelating, adherence, zinc and ATP binding proteins, and hydrolase activity. Gene ontology enrichment analysis revealed that L. crispatus strains showed greater enrichment of functions related to plasma membrane integrity, biosurfactant, hydrogen peroxide synthesis, and iron sequestration as an ancestral derived core function, while bacteriocin and organic acid biosynthesis are strain-specific accessory enriched functions. L. jensenii showed greater enrichment of functions related to adherence, aggregation, and exopolysaccharide synthesis. Notably, the key functionalities are heterogeneously enriched in some specific strains of L. iners and L. gasseri.This study shed light on the genomic features and their variability that provides advantageous attributes to predominant vaginal Lactobacillus species maintaining vaginal homeostasis. These findings evoke the need to consider region-specific candidate strains of Lactobacillus to formulate prophylactic measures against vaginal dysbiosis for women's health.

Therapeutic Potential of Bioactive Compounds from Edible Mushrooms to Attenuate SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Some Complications of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19).

The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a highly infectious positive RNA virus, has spread from its epicenter to other countries with increased mortality and morbidity. Its expansion has hampered humankind's social, economic, and health realms to a large extent. Globally, investigations are underway to understand the complex pathophysiology of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) induced by SARS-CoV-2. Though numerous therapeutic strategies have been introduced to combat COVID-19, none are fully proven or comprehensive, as several key issues and challenges remain unresolved. At present, natural products have gained significant momentum in treating metabolic disorders. Mushrooms have often proved to be the precursor of various therapeutic molecules or drug prototypes. The plentiful bioactive macromolecules in edible mushrooms, like polysaccharides, proteins, and other secondary metabolites (such as flavonoids, polyphenols, etc.), have been used to treat multiple diseases, including viral infections, by traditional healers and the medical fraternity. Some edible mushrooms with a high proportion of therapeutic molecules are known as medicinal mushrooms. In this review, an attempt has been made to highlight the exploration of bioactive molecules in mushrooms to combat the various pathophysiological complications of COVID-19. This review presents an in-depth and critical analysis of the current therapies against COVID-19 versus the potential of natural anti-infective, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic products derived from a wide range of easily sourced mushrooms and their bioactive molecules.

A Novel Therapeutic Formulation for the Improved Treatment of Indian Red Scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) Venom-Induced Toxicity-Tested in Caenorhabditis elegans and Rodent Models.

Indian Red Scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) stings are a neglected public health problem in tropical and sub-tropical countries, including India. The drawbacks of conventional therapies using commercial anti-scorpion antivenom (ASA) and α1-adrenoreceptor antagonists (AAA) have prompted us to search for an adequate formulation to improve treatment against M. tamulus stings. Novel therapeutic drug formulations (TDF) of low doses of commercial ASA, AAA, and ascorbic acid have remarkably improved in neutralising the in vivo toxic effects of M. tamulus venom (MTV) tested in Caenorhabditis elegans and Wistar strain albino rats in vivo models. The neutralisation of MTV-induced production of free radicals, alteration of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and upregulated expression of genes involved in apoptosis, detoxification, and stress response in C. elegans by TDF surpassed the same effect shown by individual components of the TDF. Further, TDF efficiently neutralized the MTV-induced increase in blood glucose level within 30 to 60 min post-treatment, organ tissue damage, necrosis, and pulmonary oedema in Wistar rats, indicating its clinical application for effecting treating M. tamulus envenomation. This study demonstrates for the first time that C. elegans can be a model organism for screening the neutralization potency of the drug molecules against a neurotoxic scorpion venom.

Multi-Omics Analysis Demonstrates the Critical Role of Non-Ethanolic Components of Alcoholic Beverages in the Host Microbiome and Metabolome: A Human- and Animal-Based Study.

It is known that alcoholic beverages alter the human gut microbiome. This study focused on the potential impact of non-ethanolic ingredients in whisky on the gut bacteriome. A pilot study was carried out on 15 whisky drinkers, 5 rice beer drinkers, and 9 non-drinkers to determine the effect of alcoholic beverages on the host microbiome and metabolome. Additionally, a mouse model was used to assess the differential impact of three whisky brands (each with an equal ethanol concentration). The results indicate that the non-ethanolic components have an impact on the gut microbiome, as well as on the metabolites in blood and feces. The amount of Prevotella copri, a typical core Indian gut bacterium, decreased in both the human and mouse groups of whisky type 1, but an increase in abundance of Helicobacteriaceae (p = 0.01) was noticed in both groups. Additionally, the alcohol-treated cohorts had lower levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), specifically butyric acid, and higher amounts of lipids and stress marker IL1-ß than the untreated groups (p = 0.04-0.01). Furthermore, two compounds, ethanal/acetaldehyde (found in all the whisky samples) and arabitol (unique to whisky type 1), were tested in the mice. Similar to the human subjects, the whisky type 1 treated mouse cohort and the arabitol-treated group showed decreased levels of Prevotella copri (p = 0.01) in their gut. The results showed that non-ethanolic compounds have a significant impact on host gut bacterial diversity and metabolite composition, which has a further vital impact on host health. Our work further emphasizes the need to study the impact of non-ethanolic ingredients of alcoholic beverages on host health.

Mechanistic Insights into Immune-Microbiota Interactions and Preventive Role of Probiotics Against Autoimmune Diabetes Mellitus.

Recent studies on genetically susceptible individuals and animal models revealed the potential role of the intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D) through complex interactions with the immune system. T1D incidence has been increasing exponentially with modern lifestyle altering normal microbiota composition, causing dysbiosis characterized by an imbalance in the gut microbial community. Dysbiosis has been suggested to be a potential contributing factor in T1D. Moreover, several studies have shown the potential role of probiotics in regulating T1D through various mechanisms. Current T1D therapies target curative measures; however, preventive therapeutics are yet to be proven. This review highlights immune microbiota interaction and the immense role of probiotics and postbiotics as important immunological interventions for reducing the risk of T1D.

Snake venom nerve growth factor-inspired designing of novel peptide therapeutics for the prevention of paraquat-induced apoptosis, neurodegeneration, and alteration of metabolic pathway genes in the rat pheochromocytoma PC-12 cell.

Neurodegenerative disorders (ND), associated with the progressive loss of neurons, oxidative stress-mediated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial dysfunction, can be treated with synthetic peptides possessing innate neurotrophic effects and neuroprotective activity. Computational analysis of two small synthetic peptides (trideca-neuropeptide, TNP; heptadeca-neuropeptide, HNP) developed from the nerve growth factors from snake venoms predicted their significant interaction with the human TrkA receptor (TrkA). In silico results were validated by an in vitro binding study of the FITC-conjugated custom peptides to rat pheochromocytoma PC-12 cell TrkA receptors. Pre-treatment of PC-12 cells with TNP and HNP induced neuritogenesis and significantly reduced the paraquat (PT)-induced cellular toxicity, the release of lactate dehydrogenase from the cell cytoplasm, production of intracellular ROS, restored the level of antioxidants, prevented alteration of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, and inhibited cellular apoptosis. These peptides lack in vitro cytotoxicity, haemolytic activity, and platelet-modulating properties and do not interfere with the blood coagulation system. Functional proteomic analyses demonstrated the reversal of PT-induced upregulated and downregulated metabolic pathway genes in PC-12 cells that were pre-treated with HNP and revealed the metabolic pathways regulated by HNP to induce neuritogenesis and confer protection against PT-induced neuronal damage in PC-12. The quantitative RT-PCR analysis confirmed that the PT-induced increased and decreased expression of critical pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes had been restored in the PC-12 cells pre-treated with the custom peptides. A network gene expression profile was proposed to elucidate the molecular interactions among the regulatory proteins for HNP to salvage the PT-induced damage. Taken together, our results show how the peptides can rescue PT-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular death and suggest new opportunities for developing neuroprotective drugs.

Recent advances in understanding of multifaceted changes in the vaginal microenvironment: implications in vaginal health and therapeutics.

The vagina endures multifaceted changes from neonatal to menopausal phases due to hormonal flux, metabolite deposition, and microbial colonization. These features have important implications in women's health. Several pre-factors show dynamic characteristics according to the phases that shift the vaginal microbiota from anaerobes to aerobes which is a hallmark of healthy vaginal environment. These factors include oestrogen levels, glycogen deposition, and vaginal microstructure. In the adult phase, Lactobacillus is highly dominant and regulates pH, adherence, aggregation, immune modulation, synthesis of bacteriocins, and biosurfactants (BSs) which are antagonistic to pathogens. Maternal factors are protective by favouring the colonization of lactobacilli in the vagina in the neonatal phase, which diminishes with age. The dominance of lactobacilli and dysbiosis in the adult phase depends on intrinsic and extrinsic factors in women, which vary between ethnicities. Recent developments in probiotics used against vaginal microbiome dysbiosis have shown great promise in restoring the normal microbiota including preventing the loss of beneficial bacteria. However, further in-depth studies are warranted to ensure long-term protection by probiotics. This review highlights various aspects of the vaginal microenvironment in different phases of growth and diverse ethnicities. Furthermore, it discusses future trends for formulating more effective population-specific probiotics and implications of paraprobiotics and postbiotics as effective therapeutics.

Understanding the Role of the Gut Microbiome in Brain Development and Its Association With Neurodevelopmental Psychiatric Disorders.

The gut microbiome has a tremendous influence on human physiology, including the nervous system. During fetal development, the initial colonization of the microbiome coincides with the development of the nervous system in a timely, coordinated manner. Emerging studies suggest an active involvement of the microbiome and its metabolic by-products in regulating early brain development. However, any disruption during this early developmental process can negatively impact brain functionality, leading to a range of neurodevelopment and neuropsychiatric disorders (NPD). In this review, we summarize recent evidence as to how the gut microbiome can influence the process of early human brain development and its association with major neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. Further, we discuss how gut microbiome alterations can also play a role in inducing drug resistance in the affected individuals. We propose a model that establishes a direct link of microbiome dysbiosis with the exacerbated inflammatory state, leading to functional brain deficits associated with NPD. Based on the existing research, we discuss a framework whereby early diet intervention can boost mental wellness in the affected subjects and call for further research for a better understanding of mechanisms that govern the gut-brain axis may lead to novel approaches to the study of the pathophysiology and treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Cold atmospheric pressure plasma for attenuation of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binding to ACE2 protein and the RNA deactivation.

Cold atmospheric pressure (CAP) plasma has a profound effect on protein-protein interactions. In this work, we have highlighted the deactivation of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein by CAP plasma treatment. Complete deactivation of spike protein binding to the human ACE2 protein was observed within an exposure time of 5 minutes which is correlated to the higher concentration of hydrogen peroxide formation due to the interaction with the reactive oxygen species present in the plasma. On the other hand, we have established that CAP plasma is also capable of degrading RNA of SARS-CoV-2 virus which is also linked to hydrogen peroxide concentration. The reactive oxygen species is produced in the plasma by using noble gases such as helium, in the absence of any other chemicals. Therefore, it is a green process with no chemical waste generated and highly advantageous from the environmental safety prospects. Results of this work could be useful in designing plasma-based disinfection systems over those based on environmentally hazardous chemical-based disinfection and biomedical applications.

A Potential Probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum JBC5 Improves Longevity and Healthy Aging by Modulating Antioxidative, Innate Immunity and Serotonin-Signaling Pathways in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Since the hypothesis of Dr. Elie Metchnikoff on lactobacilli-mediated healthy aging, several microbes have been reported to extend the lifespan with different features of healthy aging. However, a microbe affecting diverse features of healthy aging is of choice for broader acceptance and marketability as a next-generation probiotic. We employed Caenorhabditis elegans as a model to understand the potential of Lactobacillus plantarum JBC5 (LPJBC5), isolated from fermented food sample on longevity and healthy aging as well as their underlying mechanisms. Firstly, LPJBC5 enhanced the mean lifespan of C. elegans by 27.81% compared with control (untreated). LPBC5-induced longevity was accompanied with better aging-associated biomarkers, such as physical functions, fat, and lipofuscin accumulation. Lifespan assay on mutant worms and gene expression studies indicated that LPJBC5-mediated longevity was due to upregulation of the skinhead-1 (skn-1) gene activated through p38 MAPK signaling cascade. Secondly, the activated transcription factor SKN-1 upregulated the expression of antioxidative, thermo-tolerant, and anti-pathogenic genes. In support, LPJBC5 conferred resistance against abiotic and biotic stresses such as oxidative, heat, and pathogen. LPJBC5 upregulated the expression of intestinal tight junction protein ZOO-1 and improved gut integrity. Thirdly, LPJBC5 improved the learning and memory of worms trained on LPJBC5 compared with naive worms. The results showed upregulation of genes involved in serotonin signaling (ser-1, mod-1, and tph-1) in LPJBC5-fed worms compared with control, suggesting that serotonin-signaling was essential for LPJBC5-mediated improved cognitive function. Fourthly, LPJBC5 decreased the fat accumulation in worms by reducing the expression of genes encoding key substrates and enzymes of fat metabolism (i.e., fat-5 and fat-7). Lastly, LPJBC5 reduced the production of reactive oxygen species and improved mitochondrial function, thereby reducing apoptosis in worms. The capability of a single bacterium on pro-longevity and the features of healthy aging, including enhancement of gut integrity and cognitive functions, makes it an ideal candidate for promotion as a next-generation probiotic.

Human Gut Microbes Associated with Systolic Blood Pressure.

Emerging studies have revealed a strong link between the gut microbiome and several human diseases. Since human gut microbiome mirrors variations in lifestyle and environment, whether associations between disease conditions and gut microbiome are consistent across populations-particularly in communities practicing traditional subsistence strategies whose microbiomes differ markedly from industrialists-remains unknown. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality in India affecting 55 million people, and high blood pressure is one of the primary risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. We examined associations between gut microbiome and blood pressure along with 14 other variables associated with lifestyle, dietary habits, disease conditions, and clinical blood markers in the three Assamese populations. Our analysis reveals a robust link between the gut microbiome diversity and composition and systolic blood pressure. Moreover, several genera previously associated with hypertension in non-Indian populations were also associated with systolic blood pressure in this cohort and these genera were predictors of elevated blood pressure in these populations. These findings confer opportunities to design personalized, preventative, and targeted interventions harnessing the gut microbiome to tackle the burden of cardiovascular diseases in India.

Traditional rice beer depletes butyric acid-producing gut bacteria Faecalibacterium and Roseburia along with fecal butyrate levels in the ethnic groups of Northeast India.

Ethnicity, geography, and dietary habits are known to have dominant roles in modulating the gut microbiota. Two major ethnic groups Ahom and Bodo in the north-east of India consume traditionally prepared rice beer which contains various microbes and substances that promote the growth of such microbes, known as prebiotics. This study aimed to understand the effect of traditionally prepared rice beer on gut microbiota. A total of 134 (67 from each group) volunteers including non-drinkers and drinkers from three locations were recruited. Fecal and blood samples were collected to study fecal bacterial and metabolite profiles and biochemical markers, respectively. Amplicon 16S rRNA gene sequencing (region V3-V4) by next-generation sequencing showed similar alpha and beta diversities in both the ethnic groups. However, with rice beer consumption the abundance of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Fusobacteria phyla was higher in the drinkers (p < 0.05) of Ahom whereas only Firmicutes were higher in Bodo ethnic group. At the genus level, the bacterial abundance of Faecalibacterium and Roseburia were lower in the drinkers (p < 0.05) of both communities. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the detection of fecal metabolites also revealed lower butyric acid in the feces of drinkers (p < 0.05). This study showed the effects of traditionally prepared rice beer on human gut microbiota and fecal metabolites. Further research is required to understand their effect on health.

The Indian gut microbiota-Is it unique?

Colonization of the gut by microbes depends on a number of factors including age, diet, genetic makeup, gender, geographic location, and health status of an individual. India is a megadiverse country and includes 4 biodiversity hot spots. These features, along with the transitioning Indian sociodemographic profile, make the gut microbiota of Indian subjects an interesting area to study. In this review, we critically discuss the present status of the gut microbiome in the Indian population and its difference from other populations. We also discuss the aberrations in the available study designs that could introduce heterogeneity. An ideal study to evaluate the core gut microbiota of healthy Indians should involve a large homogeneous population across the country and use the same technology and data analytics tools. The "Landscape of Gut Microbiome-Pan India Exploration" (LogMPIE) is such a study that confirmed the most predominant organisms in Indians to be Prevotella copri and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii.

Caenorhabditis elegans: a model to understand host-microbe interactions.

Host-microbe interactions within the gut are fundamental to all higher organisms. Caenorhabditis elegans has been in use as a surrogate model to understand the conserved mechanisms in host-microbe interactions. Morphological and functional similarities of C. elegans gut with the human have allowed the mechanistic investigation of gut microbes and their effects on metabolism, development, reproduction, behavior, pathogenesis, immune responses and lifespan. Recent reports suggest their suitability for functional investigations of human gut bacteria, such as gut microbiota of healthy and diseased individuals. Our knowledge on the gut microbial diversity of C. elegans in their natural environment and the effect of host genetics on their core gut microbiota is important. Caenorhabditis elegans, as a model, is continuously bridging the gap in our understanding the role of genetics, environment, and dietary factors on physiology of the host.