The effect of combined preinduction thoracic epidural anaesthesia and glucocorticoid administration on perioperative interleukin-10 levels and hyperglycemia. A randomized controlled trial.

AIM: Anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) play a key role in the anti-inflammatory cascade after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). Even moderate hyperglycemia can increase mortality/morbidity, stroke, and myocardial infarction after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). The purpose of our study was to investigate whether preinduction thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) and preinduction glucocorticoid have an effect on perioperative anti-inflammatory and perioperative hyperglycemia in patients undergoing CABG with CPB. METHODS: Sixty low-risk patients (n=60) undergoing elective CABG were randomly allocated into 4 groups: Group corticosteroid (Group S) (n=15) received 6-methylprednisolone 15 mg/kg IV 60 min before induction; Group TEA+corticosteroid (Group TEA+S) (n=15) received 20 mg bupivacaine in bolus 60 min before induction followed by 20 mg/h bupivacaine infusion intraoperatively and postoperatively via epidural catheter. Group TEA (n=15) received 20 mg bupivacaine in bolus 60 min before induction followed by 20 mg/h bupivacaine infusion intraoperatively and postoperatively via epidural catheter. Group control (Group C) (n=15) received neither preinduction TEA nor a preinduction steroid. Blood samples were sequentially taken before surgery (baseline), before CPB, 1 h after CPB, in the intensive care unit (ICU) and 24 h after surgery from an indwelling radial arterial catheter. RESULTS: Before CPB, circulating IL-10 levels were higher in groups TEA+S and S than in group C (P<0.05). At 1 h after CPB, IL-10 levels were higher in groups TEA+S and S than in group C (P<0.001). Before CPB and at 1 h after CPB, IL-10 levels were lower in group TEA than in group C (P<0.05). Before CPB, glucose levels were higher in group S than in groups TEA, C or TEA+S (P<0.001; P<0.05). There was no significant difference in glucose levels between groups TEA, TEA+S and C. At 1 hour after CPB, glucose levels were significantly lower in groups TEA and TEA+S than in groups S and C (P<0.001; P<0.05). At 1 hour after CPB, glucose levels were significantly higher in group S than in group C (P<0.05). At ICU, glucose levels were significantly lower in group TEA than in groups S, C and TEA+S (P<0.001; P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The study results show that preinduction TEA improves glucose homeostasis during the perioperative 24-h period in CABG surgery. In addition, we found that while preinduction TEA reduced blood IL-10 levels, preinduction glucocorticoid and TEA+S increased the circulating levels of IL-10.

The cardioprotective effects of thoracal epidural anestesia are induced by the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and inducible nitric oxide synthase in cardiopulmonary bypass surgery.

AIM: The cardioprotective effects of thoracal epidural anesthesia (TEA) are induced by the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS) in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) surgery. When general anaesthesia (GA) is combined with TEA during coronary artery bypass graft, we investigated whether TEA together with GA play a role on VEGF and i-NOS expression in human heart tissue in cardiac ischemia. METHODS: Right atrial biopsy samples were taken before CPB, before aortic cross clamp (ACC) and at 15 min after ACC release (after ischemia and reperfusion). Human heart tissues were obtained from the TEA+GA and GA groups. Immunocytochemistry was performed using antibodies for VEGF and i-NOS. RESULTS: Both VEGF and i-NOS immunoreactivity was observed in cardiomyocytes and arteriol walls. Although VEGF and i-NOS immunoreactivity was apparent in both groups,, immunostaining intensity was greater in the TEA+GA group than the GA group. Between groups, at 4 h and at 24 h after the end of CPB, the cardiac index (CI) was significantly higher in the TEA+GA group than GA group (3.4+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 2.5+/-0.8 L/min/m(2); P<0.001), (3.8+/-1.1 L/min/m(2) vs 3.1+/-1.1 L/min/m(2); P<0.008) respectively. Within groups, at 4 and 24 h after the end of CPB, the CI was significantly higher in the TEA+GA group than baseline values, (3.4+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 2.4+/-0.7 L/min/m(2); P<0.001), (3.8 +/-1.1 L/min/m(2) vs 2.4+/-0.7 L/min/m(2); P<0.001) respectively, but no difference was found in the GA group (2.6+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 2.5+/-0.8 L/min/m(2); P>0.05), (2.6+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 3.1+/-1.1 L/min/m(2); P>0.05) respectively. After ACC release, 11/40 (27.5%) patients in the TEA+GA group showed ventricular fibrillation (VF), atrial fibrillation or heart block versus 25/40 (62.5%) of those in the GA group. VF after ACC release in the TEA+GA group (9/20 patients, 22.5%) was significantly lower than in the GA group (21/40 patients, 52.5%); (P<0.006). Sinus rhythm after ACC release in the TEA+GA group (29/40 patients, 72.5%) was significantly higher than in the GA group (15/40 patients, 37.5%); (P<0.002). CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study indicate that TEA plus GA in coronary surgery preserve cardiac function via increased expression of VEGF and i-NOS, improved hemodynamic function and reduced arrhythmias after ACC release.

General anesthesia with thoracic epidural anesthesia in the cardiopulmonary bypass surgery reduces apoptosis by upregulating antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2.

AIM: The aim of the paper was to investigate whether thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) together with general anaesthesia (GA) play a role on apoptosis in humans before cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), before aortic cross clamp (ACC) and at 15 min after ACC release (after ischemia and reperfusion). METHODS: Eighty patients scheduled for elective CABG were randomized to receive either GA group (n: 40) or TEA+GA group (n: 40). The right atrial biopsy samples were taken before CPB, before ACC and at 15 min after ACC release from all patients. Human heart tissues were obtained from patients of TEA+GA group and GA group. The number of Bcl-2 positive cardiomyocytes was counted in multiple tissue sections of biopsies of 80 patients using light microscopy (magnification x 40) with an ocular micrometer system (Olympus). RESULTS: In the TEA+GA group, the Bcl-2 positive cardiomyocytes were distinctly statistically increased compared to the GA group (P<0.001). In addition, the intensity of the immunostaining was also increased in the TEA+GA compared with the GA group. The number of immunoreactive cardiomyocytes is as follows: before CPB, TEA+GA group 396+/-61, GA group 92+/-41, before ACC, TEA+GA group 333+/-47, GA group 94+/-18, at 15 min after ACC release, TEA+GA group 346+/-68.8, GA group 85+/-9.5. There were statistically significant differences between groups, (P<0.001). Between groups, at 4 h and at 24 h after the end of CPB, in the TEA+GA group, the CI was significantly higher than GA group respectively; (3.4+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 2.5+/-0.8 L/min/m(2); P<0.001), (3.8+/-1.1 L/min/m(2) vs 3.1+/-1.1 L/min/m(2); P<0.008). Within groups, at 4 and 24 h after the end of CPB, in the TEA+GA group, the CI was significantly higher than baseline values, respectively, (3.4+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs 2.4+/-0.7 L/min/m(2); P<0.001), (3.8+/-1.1 L/min/m(2) vs 2.4+/-0.7 L/min/m(2); P<0.001). Whereas no difference was found in the GA group respectively, (2.6+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs. 2.5+/-0.8 L/min/m(2); P>0.05), (2.6+/-0.8 L/min/m(2) vs. 3.1+/-1.1 L/min/m(2); P>0.05). The number of patients showing ventricular fibrillation (VF), atrial fibrillation or heart block after release of the ACC was 11 of 40 (27.5%) in the TEA+GA group versus 25 of 40 (62.5%) in the GA group. The number of patients showing VF after release of ACC was 9 out of 20 patients (22.5%) in the TEA+GA group which was significantly lower than in the GA group (21 of 40 patients 52.5%); (P<0.006). Sinus rhythm after release of ACC, in the TEA+GA group was observed in 29 of 40 patients (72.5%) and was significantly higher than in the GA group (15 of 40 patients 37.5%); (P<0.002). CONCLUSION: The result of the present study indicate that TEA plus GA in coronary surgery had preserved cardiac function during intraoperative and postoperative period by means of reduced apoptosis, improved hemodynamic function and reduced arrhythmias after release of the ACC.

Thoracic epidural anesthesia preserves myocardial function during intraoperative and postoperative period in coronary artery bypass grafting operation.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) in patients with poor ventricular function undergoing conventional coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) during the intraoperative and the postoperative period. METHODS: Eighty patients (n = 80) undergoing elective CABG surgery with cardiopulmobary bypass (CPB) were divided into 4 groups: 1) General anesthesia (GA) plus poor ventricular (PV) function patients (Group GA plus PV) (n = 20), ejection fraction (EF) = or <40%; 2) GA plus good ventricular (GV) function patients (Group GA plus GV) (n = 20), EF >40%; 3) Thoracic epidural anaesthesia (TEA)+GA, poor ventricular function patients (Group TEA+GA plus PV) (n = 20), EF = or <40%; 4) TEA+GA, good ventricular function patients (Group TEA+GA plus GV) (n = 20), EF >40%. RESULTS: Within groups, at 4 h after the end of CPB, in the Group TEA+GA plus PV and Group TEA+GA plus GV, the cardiac index values were significantly higher than baseline values; P < 0.05, whereas no difference was found in the Group GA plus PV and Group GA plus GV. According to Tukey test, using repeated measures, between trend of groups, the cardiac index values were significantly different P < 0.05. In the Group TEA+GA plus PV, cardiac index values were significantly higher than the Group GA plus PV, P < 0.05. But in the Group GA plus GV, cardiac index values were not significantly different than the Group TEA+GA plus GV. The incidence of reperfusion ventricular fibrillation (VF) after release of aortic cross-clamp, in the Group TEA+GA plus PV (4 of 20 patients: 20%) was significantly lower than in the Group GA plus PV (11 of 20 patients: 55%); P < 0.05. The incidence of reperfusion VF after release of aortic cross-clamp, in the Group TEA+GA plus GV (5 of 20 patients: 25%) was not significantly different than in the Group GA plus GV (10 of 20 patients: 50%); NS. CONCLUSIONS: TEA seems to be effective in patients with poor left ventricular function. Our results (improved cardiac index, reduced arrhythmias after release of aortic clamp and decreased inotropic requirement) are better with TEA, particularly in patients with poor left ventricular function.

The effect of combined spinal-epidural (CSE) anaesthesia and size of spinal needle on postoperative hearing loss after elective caesarean section.

The exact aetiology of vestibulocochlear dysfunction after spinal anaesthesia is unknown. Low-frequency hearing loss occurs after spinal anaesthesia. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of combined spinal-epidural (CSE) anaesthesia and size of spinal needle on vestibulocochlear dysfunction, using pure tone audiometry performed pre- and on the first and the second day postoperatively. Forty-five patients who were to undergo elective caesarean section were evaluated. In group I, CSE anaesthesia (18 G Tuohy, 25 G Whitacre pencil-point-design spinal needles) was performed in 15 patients. In group II, spinal anaesthesia was performed in 15 patients with 25 G Whitacre pencil-point-design spinal needles and, in group III, spinal anaesthesia was performed in 15 patients with 22 G Whitacre pencil-point-design spinal needles. In the pre- and on the first and the second day postoperatively, the pure tone audiogram was performed in the audiology laboratory of our hospital, using a calibrated Kamplex Diagnostic Audiometer AC 40 in a noise-free room. When the CSE anaesthesia group and 22 G spinal group were compared for change in hearing between the pre- and postoperative periods, a statistically significant difference was observed at R-right ear 125 Hz (P < 0.025) and at L-left ear 125 Hz (P < 0.023), and at L-left ear 1000 Hz (P < 0.036) and at R-right ear 1500 Hz (P < 0.006), and at L-left ear 1500 Hz (P < 0.022). At other frequencies, the difference was insignificant. When the CSE anaesthesia group and 25 G spinal group were compared for change in hearing between the pre- and postoperative periods, no statistically significant difference was detected at any frequency tested. When 22 G spinal group and 25 G spinal group were compared for change in hearing between the pre- and postoperative periods, there was some hearing loss at low frequency, although this difference did not reach statistical significance. The positive correlation of low-frequency hearing loss and increased pressure in the epidural space (which decrease the risk of cerebrospinal fluid leakage through the dura) suggests that cerebrospinal fluid leakage via the spinal puncture hole is not the only factor involved. Perioperative fluid replacement alone may not prevent hearing loss but CSF loss through the dural puncture site should also be prevented.

Permanent sensorineural hearing loss following spinal anesthesia.

A 25-year-old female developed permanent, fluctuating sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), disabling vertigo, and tinnitus following an uneventful spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. At her first visit to the ear-nose-throat (ENT) department approximately 2 months postoperatively, pure-tone thresholds revealed profound SNHL on the right side whereas thresholds were within normal limits on the left side. The recruitment score (SISI) was 95% at 2000 Hz on the right side. Directional preponderance towards the right and the right canal paresis were evidenced by bithermal caloric testing. At follow ups the pure tone thresholds have shown some improvement, but fluctuating SNHL, disabling vertigo attacks, and tinnitus have remained. These findings imply a cochlear pathology causing endolymphatic hydrops possibly induced by lumbar puncture for spinal anesthesia.

The effect of preemptive intravenous morphine on postoperative analgesia and surgical stress response.

BACKGROUND: Although initial studies of preemptive analgesia showed that preoperative blockade with local anaesthetics or preoperative administration of systemic opioids was more effective in reducing postoperative pain than control conditions involving no treatment, the result of subsequent investigations comparing the effects of preoperative treatment with the same treatment initiated after surgery have produced inconsistent RESULTS. The reasons for the lack of consistency are not clear. Studies about the relationship of preemptive analgesia and both analgesic consumption and surgical stress response are limited. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of preemptive intravenous morphine on both postoperative analgesic consumption and surgical stress response. METHODS: Sixty patients, ASA I or II, aged 20-60, undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy plus bilateral salpingo-oopherectomy and double-blinded were randomly assigned to three groups of 20 patients. Group I (n=20) received 0.15 mg/kg of morphine following induction and placebo saline during peritoneal closure. Group II (n=20) received placebo saline following induction and 0.15 mg/kg of morphine during peritoneal closure. Group III (n=20) received placebo saline both during induction and peritoneal closure. Blood cortisol, glucose levels and leukocyte count were measured in the pre and postoperative period. RESULTS: Postoperative total morphine consumption was significantly lower in group I compared with group III (p<0.001). In all groups, plasma cortisol levels increased significantly within 4 hours of surgery as compared to pre-op values (p<0.001). Plasma glucose also increased to a significantly higher level in all groups in the postoperative 30 min and 8 hours than in the pre-op values (p<0.001). Postoperative leukocytosis was observed in all groups and the leukocyte count was significantly greater during postoperative 24 h than pre-op values (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Preemptive morphine 0.15 mg/kg intravenous has decreased total morphine consumption but has failed to suppress the surgical stress response.

Short- and long-term effects of regional application of morphine and bupivacaine on the iliac crest donor site.

We investigated the analgesic effect of regional application of bupivacaine and a morphine-bupivacaine combination on iliac crest donor-site pain in a randomized, double-blind controlled study of 45 patients. Patients were divided into three groups: group I (control group), group II (bupivacaine) and group III (morphine-bupivacaine combination). Pain in the acute stage was evaluated by visual analogue scale scoring and analgesic consumption. Chronic pain and dysesthesia were evaluated at 12 weeks after operation at a follow-up visit. It was found that local bupivacaine administration with or without morphine provided satisfactory analgesia in the acute stage following iliac crest bone harvesting. The amount of analgesic consumption was found to be significantly less with the addition of morphine to bupivacaine, when compared to bupivacaine alone. Effective pain control in the acute stage had a favorable effect on long-term pain and dysesthesia, which are the main complaints after iliac crest bone harvesting. This effect was augmented significantly by addition of morphine to the local anesthetic solution.

The effects of preemptive intravenous versus preemptive epidural morphine on postoperative analgesia and surgical stress response after orthopaedic procedures.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of pre-emptive intravenous versus pre-emptive epidural morphine on both postoperative analgesic consumption and surgical stress response. METHODS: Sixty patients, ASA I or II, aged 18-85, undergoing total hip or knee replacement were randomly assigned to three groups of 20 patients. In group pre-emptive epidural, patients were administered an epidural injection of 75 micrograms.kg-1 morphine about 45 minute before dermal incision. In group pre-emptive intravenous, patients were administered 0.15 mg.kg-1 of intravenous morphine following induction before dermal incision. In group control, patients were administered intravenous saline following induction before dermal incision. RESULTS: The pre-i.v. group used significantly less morphine than the pre-epi group (p < 0.0003). In all groups, plasma cortisol levels increased as compared to pre-op values, but plasma cortisol increased more significantly in the pre-i.v. and control groups within 4 hrs of surgery and was still significantly elevated at 7 am of the first postoperative morning compared to the pre-epi group (p < 0.001) and the increase persisted to the next morning in patients pre-i.v. and control groups. CONCLUSIONS: Although pre-emptive epidural morphine has failed to decrease postoperative analgesic consumption, it has been able to suppress the surgical stress more significantly than intravenous morphine and a saline control.

Effects of diclofenac and intra-articular morphine/bupivacaine on postarthroscopic pain control.

BACKGROUND: This study was undertaken to compare analgesic effects and requirements for supplemental analgesic therapy after knee arthroscopy in patients given intraarticular morphine/bupivacaine, diclofenac i.m., or both compared with placebo. METHOD: In a randomised, double-blind controlled trial 40 patients were divided into four groups. Patients received 25 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine and 2 mg of morphine intraarticularly in group I, 75 mg of diclofenac i.m. in group III, the combination of 75 mg of diclofenac i.m. and 25 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine and 2 mg of morphine intraarticularly in group II, and placebo in group IV. Postoperative analgesia was provided with fentanyl in the recovery room and acetaminophen was given for subsequent pain relief. RESULTS: In the postoperative period, VAS scores for pain were highest in the placebo group, whereas they were lowest in the combination group. VAS scores were significantly lower in group I and II than group IV at the postoperative 2nd hour (p < 0.05). VAS score was significantly lower in group II than groups III and IV at the postoperative 3rd hour (p < 0.01). VAS scores were significantly lower in group I, II and III than group IV at the postoperative 6th hour (p < 0.05). Fentanyl consumption was significantly lower in group II than group IV (p < 0.05). Acetaminophen consumption in groups II and III were significantly lower than group IV (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The combination of diclofenac i.m. and intraarticular morphine/bupivacaine appears to be the most beneficial analgesic combination due to its lower VAS scores and supplemental analgesic requirements in the postoperative period.

Propofol-nitrous oxide versus sevoflurane-nitrous oxide for strabismus surgery in children.

Vomiting is a common problem following strabismus surgery. We compared the effects of propofol-N2O and sevoflurane-N2O on the incidence of oculocardiac reflex and postoperative nausea and vomiting. Forty unpremedicated children, aged 3-15 years were randomly assigned to two groups of 20 patients. In group 1, anaesthesia was induced and maintained with propofol infusion (173 +/- 41 micrograms.kg-1.min-1). In group 2, anaesthesia was induced with N2O (66%) in O2 and incremental sevoflurane via face mask and maintained with sevoflurane. Both groups received 66% N2O in O2 throughout surgery. The overall incidence of vomiting and antiemetic requirement in the first 24 h was significantly higher in sevoflurane-N2O group than propofol-N2O group (P < 0.05). The propofol-N2O group had significantly more episodes of oculocardiac reflex than sevoflurane-N2O group (P < 0.05). Propofol-N2O anaesthesia results in a significantly lower incidence of postoperative vomiting, yet a significantly higher incidence of oculocardiac reflex.

The effect on intraocular pressure of endotracheal intubation or laryngeal mask use during TIVA without the use of muscle relaxants.

BACKGROUND: Depolarizing and non-depolarizing muscle relaxants possess many untoward side effects. In most patients endotracheal intubation may be performed with a propofol and alfentanil combination. The purpose of this study was to compare the effect on intraocular pressure (IOP) and haemodynamics of endotracheal (ET) intubation or laryngeal mask (LMA) insertion during total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) without the use of muscle relaxants. METHODS: In a randomised study, 20 patients scheduled for elective orthopaedic surgery were assigned to two groups of 10 patients. Anaesthesia was induced with i.v. alfentanil 40 micrograms/kg and propofol 2.5 mg/kg. LMA insertion or ET intubation was achieved by the same anaesthesiologist. Airway score, insertion score, patient response and haemodynamics were recorded. IOP measurements were recorded before and after induction, 1 and 2 min after ET intubation or LMA insertion, and 1 and 2 min after extubation. RESULTS: Mean arterial pressure and heart rate after insertion of the airway management devices was significantly higher than induction values in the ET group (P < 0.05), while during 2-3 min no significant changes were observed in LMA group. In all patients following propofol and alfentanil induction, IOP was significantly lower than preinduction values (P < 0.001). IOP following extubation was significantly higher than preinduction values in the ET group, but not in the LMA group (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: During TIVA without the use of muscle relaxants neither LMA insertion nor ET intubation increased the IOP, but ET extubation did.