West Nile Virus Temperature Sensitivity and Avian Virulence Are Modulated by NS1-2B Polymorphisms.

West Nile virus (WNV) replicates in a wide variety of avian species, which serve as reservoir and amplification hosts. WNV strains isolated in North America, such as the prototype strain NY99, elicit a highly pathogenic response in certain avian species, notably American crows (AMCRs; Corvus brachyrhynchos). In contrast, a closely related strain, KN3829, isolated in Kenya, exhibits a low viremic response with limited mortality in AMCRs. Previous work has associated the difference in pathogenicity primarily with a single amino acid mutation at position 249 in the helicase domain of the NS3 protein. The NY99 strain encodes a proline residue at this position, while KN3829 encodes a threonine. Introduction of an NS3-T249P mutation in the KN3829 genetic background significantly increased virulence and mortality; however, peak viremia and mortality were lower than those of NY99. In order to elucidate the viral genetic basis for phenotype variations exclusive of the NS3-249 polymorphism, chimeric NY99/KN3829 viruses were created. We show herein that differences in the NS1-2B region contribute to avian pathogenicity in a manner that is independent of and additive with the NS3-249 mutation. Additionally, NS1-2B residues were found to alter temperature sensitivity when grown in avian cells.

Genetic and phenotypic characterization of manufacturing seeds for a tetravalent dengue vaccine (DENVax).

BACKGROUND: We have developed a manufacturing strategy that can improve the safety and genetic stability of recombinant live-attenuated chimeric dengue vaccine (DENVax) viruses. These viruses, containing the pre-membrane (prM) and envelope (E) genes of dengue serotypes 1-4 in the replicative background of the attenuated dengue-2 PDK-53 vaccine virus candidate, were manufactured under cGMP. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: After deriving vaccine viruses from RNA-transfected Vero cells, six plaque-purified viruses for each serotype were produced. The plaque-purified strains were then analyzed to select one stock for generation of the master seed. Full genetic and phenotypic characterizations of the master virus seeds were conducted to ensure these viruses retained the previously identified attenuating determinants and phenotypes of the vaccine viruses. We also assessed vector competence of the vaccine viruses in sympatric (Thai) Aedes aegypti mosquito vectors. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: All four serotypes of master vaccine seeds retained the previously defined safety features, including all three major genetic loci of attenuation, small plaques, temperature sensitivity in mammalian cells, reduced replication in mosquito cell cultures, and reduced neurovirulence in new-born mice. In addition, the candidate vaccine viruses demonstrated greatly reduced infection and dissemination in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, and are not likely to be transmissible by these mosquitoes. This manufacturing strategy has successfully been used to produce the candidate tetravalent vaccine, which is currently being tested in human clinical trials in the United States, Central and South America, and Asia.

Mutational analysis of the West Nile virus NS4B protein.

West Nile virus NS4B is a small hydrophobic nonstructural protein approximately 27 kDa in size whose function is poorly understood. Amino acid substitutions were introduced into the NS4B protein primarily targeting two distinct regions; the N-terminal domain (residues 35 through 60) and the central hydrophobic domain (residues 95 through 120). Only the NS4B P38G substitution was associated with both temperature-sensitive and small-plaque phenotypes. Importantly, this mutation was found to attenuate neuroinvasiveness greater than 10,000,000-fold and lower viremia titers compared to the wild-type NY99 virus in a mouse model. Full genome sequencing of the NS4B P38G mutant virus revealed two unexpected mutations at NS4B T116I and NS3 N480H (P38G/T116I/N480H), however, neither mutation alone was temperature sensitive or attenuated in mice. Following incubation of P38G/T116I/N480H at 41°C, five mutants encoding compensatory substitutions in the NS4B protein exhibited a reduction in the temperature-sensitive phenotype and reversion to a virulent phenotype in the mouse model.

Immunogenicity and efficacy of chimeric dengue vaccine (DENVax) formulations in interferon-deficient AG129 mice.

Formulations of chimeric dengue vaccine (DENVax) viruses containing the pre-membrane (prM) and envelope (E) genes of serotypes 1-4 expressed in the context of the attenuated DENV-2 PDK-53 genome were tested for safety, immunogenicity and efficacy in interferon receptor knock-out mice (AG129). Monovalent formulations were safe and elicited robust neutralizing antibody responses to the homologous virus and only limited cross-reactivity to other serotypes. A single dose of monovalent DENVax-1, -2, or -3 vaccine provided eighty or greater percent protection against both wild-type (wt) DENV-1 (Mochizuki strain) and DENV-2 (New Guinea C strain) challenge viruses. A single dose of monovalent DENVax-4 also provided complete protection against wt DENV-1 challenge and significantly increased the survival times after challenge with wt DENV-2. In studies using tetravalent mixtures, DENVax ratios were identified that: (i) caused limited viremia, (ii) induced serotype-specific neutralizing antibodies to all four DENV serotypes with different hierarchies, and (iii) conferred full protection against clinical signs of disease following challenge with either wt DENV-1 or DENV-2 viruses. Overall, these data highlight the immunogenic profile of DENVax, a novel candidate tetravalent dengue vaccine and the advantage of sharing a common attenuated genomic backbone among the DENVax monovalent vaccines that confer protection against homologous or heterologous virus challenge.

Multiple amino acid changes at the first glycosylation motif in NS1 protein of West Nile virus are necessary for complete attenuation for mouse neuroinvasiveness.

West Nile virus (WNV), like all members of the Japanese encephalitis (JE) serogroup except JE virus, contains three N-linked glycosylation (N-X-S/T) sites in the NS1 protein at asparagine residues NS1(130), NS1(175) and NS1(207). Previously we showed that the ablation of these glycosylation sites in WNV, by substitution of asparagine for alanine, attenuated mouse neuroinvasiveness; however, full attenuation was not achieved and the virus retained a neurovirulence phenotype. Sequence of viral RNA extracted from mouse brains revealed a reversion at the NS1(130) site in some mice that succumbed to the attenuated NS1(130A/175A/207A) strain. Here, we further attenuated WNV by mutating the asparagine to serine or glutamine in addition to mutating other residues in the NS1(130-132) glycosylation motif. These mutants proved to further attenuate WNV for both neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence in mice. NS1(130-132QQA/175A/207A), the most attenuated mutant virus, showed modest changes in infectivity titers versus the parental strain, was not temperature sensitive, and did not show reversion in mice. Mutant virus was completely attenuated for neuroinvasiveness after intraperitoneal inoculation with >1,000,000 PFU, and mice were protected against lethal challenge. Overall, we showed that changing the asparagine of the NS1(130) glycosylation motif to a serine or glutamine attenuated WNV further than the asparagine to alanine substitution. Further, mutating all three of the amino acids of the NS1(130-132) glycosylation motif (NTT-QQA) along with NS1(175) and NS1(207) asparagine to alanine mutations gave the most stable and attenuated strain.

Novel formulations enhance the thermal stability of live-attenuated flavivirus vaccines.

Thermal stability is important for the manufacture, distribution and administration of vaccines, especially in tropical developing countries, where particularly adverse field conditions exist. Current live-attenuated flavivirus vaccines exhibit relatively poor liquid stability in clinical settings, and clinicians are instructed to discard the yellow fever vaccine 1h after reconstitution. We have identified novel combinations of excipients that greatly enhance the thermal stability of live-attenuated DEN-2 PDK-53-based flavivirus vaccine candidates. Liquid formulations comprising a sugar, albumin and a pluronic polymer minimized the loss of flavivirus infectious titer to less than 0.5 log(10)pfu after storage for at least 8h at 37°C, 7 days at room temperature or at least 11 weeks at 4°C. Additionally, these formulations prevented reduction of viral infectivity after two freeze-thaw cycles of virus. Formulated candidate vaccines were readily lyophilized and reconstituted with minimal loss of viral titers. In mice, the formulations were safe and did not hinder the ability of the vaccine virus to generate a potent, protective immune response. These formulations provided significantly greater liquid-phase stability than has been reported previously for other flavivirus vaccine formulations. The enhanced thermal stability provided by the formulations described here will facilitate the effective distribution of flavivirus vaccines worldwide.

Envelope and pre-membrane protein structural amino acid mutations mediate diminished avian growth and virulence of a Mexican West Nile virus isolate.

The hallmark attribute of North American West Nile virus (WNV) strains has been high pathogenicity in certain bird species. Surprisingly, this avian virulent WNV phenotype has not been observed during its geographical expansion into the Caribbean, Central America and South America. One WNV variant (TM171-03-pp1) isolated in Mexico has demonstrated an attenuated phenotype in two widely distributed North American bird species, American crows (AMCRs) and house sparrows (HOSPs). In order to identify genetic determinants associated with attenuated avian replication of the TM171-03-pp1 variant, chimeric viruses between the NY99 and Mexican strains were generated, and their replicative capacity was assessed in cell culture and in AMCR, HOSP and house finch avian hosts. The results demonstrated that mutations in both the pre-membrane (prM-I141T) and envelope (E-S156P) genes mediated the attenuation phenotype of the WNV TM171-03-pp1 variant in a chicken macrophage cell line and in all three avian species assayed. Inclusion of the prM-I141T and E-S156P TM171-03-pp1 mutations in the NY99 backbone was necessary to achieve the avian attenuation level of the Mexican virus. Furthermore, reciprocal incorporation of both prM-T141I and E-P156S substitutions into the Mexican virus genome was necessary to generate a virus that exhibited avian virulence equivalent to the NY99 virus. These structural changes may indicate the presence of new evolutionary pressures exerted on WNV populations circulating in Latin America or may signify a genetic bottleneck that has constrained their epiornitic potential in alternative geographical locations.

Development of DENVax: a chimeric dengue-2 PDK-53-based tetravalent vaccine for protection against dengue fever.

Dengue. virus infection is the leading arboviral cause of disease worldwide. A vaccine is being developed based on the attenuated DEN-2 virus, DEN-2 PDK-53. In this review, we summarize the characteristics of the parent DEN-2 PDK-53 strain as well as the chimeric viruses containing the prM and E genes of DEN-1, DEN-3 or DEN-4 virus in the genetic backbone of the DEN-2 PDK-53 virus (termed DENVax). Tetravalent DENVax formulations containing cloned, fully sequenced isolates of the DEN-2 PDK-53 virus and the three chimeras have been evaluated for safety and efficacy in preclinical animal models. Based on the safety, immunogenicity and efficacy in preclinical studies, Phase 1 clinical testing of DENVax has been initiated.

Efficacy of a tetravalent chimeric dengue vaccine (DENVax) in Cynomolgus macaques.

Three tetravalent formulations of chimeric dengue (DENVax) viruses containing the pre-membrane and envelope genes of serotypes 1-4 expressed by the attenuated DENV-2 PDK-53 genome were tested for safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Subcutaneous injection of the DENVax formulations was well-tolerated. Low levels of viremia of only one of the four vaccine viruses were detected yet virus neutralizing antibody titers were induced against all four dengue virus serotypes after one or two administrations of vaccine. All animals immunized with the high-dose formulation were protected from viremia, and all immunized animals were completely protected from DENV-3 and DENV-4 challenge. A lower dose of DENVax formulation partially protected animals from DENV-1 or DENV-2 challenge. In contrast, all control animals developed high levels of viremia for multiple days after challenge with DENV 1-4. This study highlights the immunogenicity and efficacy of the tetravalent DENVax formulations in nonhuman primates.

Replication of the primary dog kidney-53 dengue 2 virus vaccine candidate in Aedes aegypti is modulated by a mutation in the 5' untranslated region and amino acid substitutions in nonstructural proteins 1 and 3.

Previous studies have demonstrated reduced replication of the cell culture-adapted Dengue-2 virus (DENV-2) vaccine candidate, primary dog kidney (PDK)-53, compared with the parental DENV-2 strain, 16681, in C6/36 cells. Various DENV-2 mutants incorporating PDK-53 substitutions singly and in combination into the 16681 genetic backbone were used to identify the genetic basis for impaired replication of the vaccine candidate in vitro in Aedes aegypti cell culture (Aag2 cells) as well as the reduced in vivo infectivity and transmissibility within Ae. aegypti infected by intrathoracic inoculation. 5' untranslated region (UTR-c57t) and nonstructural protein 1 (NS1-G53D) mutations were required to completely attenuate in vitro replication. In contrast, incorporation of the PDK-53-specific NS3-250V mutation into the 16681 virus resulted in reduced replication in mosquitoes but had no effect on in vitro replication. Further, reversion of the PDK-53 NS3-250 site to that of the wild-type 16681 virus (NS3-V250E) failed to increase either in vitro or in vivo replication. Intrathoracic inoculation of Ae. aegypti with mutants containing the PDK-53 NS1 substitution exhibited in vivo replication indistinguishable from the parental PDK-53 virus, implicating this mutation as the dominant determinant for impaired mosquito replication of the PDK-53 candidate; however, further attenuation of in vivo replication was magnified in mutants including the additional 5'UTR-c57t mutation.

Characterization of recombinant dengue-2 virus derived from a single nucleotide substitution in the 5' noncoding region.

Variants of wild-type dengue serotype 2 (DEN-2) virus containing nucleotide substitutions at positions 14, 15, or 57 in the 5' NCR were constructed by PCR-mediated site-directed mutagenesis. All three viruses containing a single point substitution demonstrated attenuation phenotype as evidenced by decreases replication and plaque size in cell culture assay. All three variants were less neurovirulent in newborn mice compared to the wild type. The mutants were immunogenic in adult mice immunogenicity and maintained stable replication characteristics following passage in mice. The variant viruses were competent for replication in Aedes aegypi mosquito vector, albeit at lower levels of infection and dissemination in the mosquito than the wild-type Den-2 16681 virus. Although all of the viruses, including the wild type, were found transmissible in mosquito life cycles, they were found subsequentially decreased in efficiency of infection, transmission, and dissemination rates along the mosquito generations and all of them remained genetically stable.

The dengue virus type 2 envelope protein fusion peptide is essential for membrane fusion.

The flaviviral envelope (E) protein directs virus-mediated membrane fusion. To investigate membrane fusion as a requirement for virus growth, we introduced 27 unique mutations into the fusion peptide of an infectious cDNA clone of dengue 2 virus and recovered seven stable mutant viruses. The fusion efficiency of the mutants was impaired, demonstrating for the first time the requirement for specific FP AAs in optimal fusion. Mutant viruses exhibited different growth kinetics and/or genetic stabilities in different cell types and adult mosquitoes. Virus particles could be recovered following RNA transfection of cells with four lethal mutants; however, recovered viruses could not re-infect cells. These viruses could enter cells, but internalized virus appeared to be retained in endosomal compartments of infected cells, thus suggesting a fusion blockade. Mutations of the FP also resulted in reduced virus reactivity with flavivirus group-reactive antibodies, confirming earlier reports using virus-like particles.

Development and characterization of non-glycosylated E and NS1 mutant viruses as a potential candidate vaccine for West Nile virus.

West Nile virus is an arthropod-borne flavivirus that has caused substantial morbidity and mortality to animals as well as humans since its introduction in to the New York area in 1999. Given that there are no antiviral drugs available for treatment of the disease, vaccines provide an efficacious alternative to control this disease. Herein we describe an attenuated WNV strain developed by the ablation of the glycosylation sites in the envelope (E) and non-structural 1 (NS1) proteins. This E(154S)/NS1(130A/175A/207A) strain showed modest reduction in multiplication kinetics in cell culture and small plaque phenotype compared to the parental NY99 strain yet displayed greater than a 200,000-fold attenuation for mouse neuroinvasiveness compared to the parental strain. Mice infected with 1000PFU of E(154S)/NS1(130A/175A/207A) showed undectable viremia at either two or three days post infection; nonetheless, high titer neutralizing antibodies were detected in mice inoculated with low doses of this virus and protected against lethal challenge with a 50% protective dose of 50PFU.

Treatment of AG129 mice with antisense morpholino oligomers increases survival time following challenge with dengue 2 virus.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the antiviral activity of phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO) and peptide-conjugated PMO (PPMO) in AG129 mice infected with dengue 2 virus (DENV-2). METHODS: Antisense PMO and PPMO were designed against the 5' terminal region (5'SL) or the 3'-cyclization sequence region (3'CS) of DENV genomic RNA and administered to AG129 mice before and/or after infection with DENV-2. In addition, cell culture evaluations designed to determine optimum PPMO length, and pharmacokinetic and toxicity analysis of PPMO were also carried out. RESULTS: Mock-treated AG129 mice lived for 9-17 days following intraperitoneal (ip) infection with 10(4)-10(6) pfu of DENV-2 (strain New Guinea C). Intraperitoneal administration of 5'SL or 3'CS PPMO before and after DENV infection produced an increase in the average survival time of up to 8 days. Animals receiving only post-infection PPMO treatment did not benefit significantly. Cell culture studies showed that PPMO of 22-24 bases long produced substantially higher DENV titre reductions than did PPMO that were either shorter or longer. Pharmacokinetic and toxicology analysis with non-infected animals showed that nine consecutive once-daily ip treatments of 10 mg/kg PPMO resulted in high concentrations of PPMO in the liver and caused little impact on overall health. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that PPMO had considerable antiviral efficacy against DENV-2 in the AG129 mouse model and that PPMO treatment early in the course of an infection was critical to extending the survival times of DENV-2-infected mice in the AG129 model system.

A single positively selected West Nile viral mutation confers increased virogenesis in American crows.

West Nile virus (WNV), first recognized in North America in 1999, has been responsible for the largest arboviral epiornitic and epidemic of human encephalitis in recorded history. Despite the well-described epidemiological patterns of WNV in North America, the basis for the emergence of WNV-associated avian pathology, particularly in the American crow (AMCR) sentinel species, and the large scale of the North American epidemic and epiornitic is uncertain. We report here that the introduction of a T249P amino acid substitution in the NS3 helicase (found in North American WNV) in a low-virulence strain was sufficient to generate a phenotype highly virulent to AMCRs. Furthermore, comparative sequence analyses of full-length WNV genomes demonstrated that the same site (NS3-249) was subject to adaptive evolution. These phenotypic and evolutionary results provide compelling evidence for the positive selection of a mutation encoding increased viremia potential and virulence in the AMCR sentinel bird species.

Glycosylation of the dengue 2 virus E protein at N67 is critical for virus growth in vitro but not for growth in intrathoracically inoculated Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.

To determine the importance of dengue 2 virus (DEN2V) envelope (E) protein glycosylation, virus mutants in one or both of the N-linked glycosylation motifs were prepared. We found that while the E2 mutant virus (N153Q) replicated in mammalian and mosquito cells, the E1 (N67Q) and E1/2 (N67Q and N153Q) mutant viruses were unable to grow in mammalian cells. Infection of C6/36 mosquito cells with either the E1 or E1/2 mutants resulted in the introduction of a compensatory mutation, K64N, restoring glycosylation in the area. All mutants replicated similarly in inoculated Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, with no change in their mutations. These results suggest that N-linked glycosylation of the E protein is not necessary for DEN2V replication in mosquitoes, however N-linked glycosylation at amino acid N67 (or nearby N64) is critical for the survival of the virus in either mammalian or insect cell culture.

Substitution or deletion mutations between nt 54 and 70 in the 5' non-coding region of dengue type 2 virus produce variable effects on virus viability.

A C57U nucleotide mutation in a predicted RNA stem structure (nt 11-16/56-61) of the 5' non-coding region (5'NCR) of dengue 2 (DEN-2) 16681 virus is partially attenuating, but unstable during serial passage of certain candidate DEN-2 PDK-53-based vaccine viruses containing this mutation. Here, 11 different mutations (one or more point substitution and/or deletion) between nt 54 and 70 in the 5'NCR of the pD2/IC-30P-A (16681) infectious clone are described. Four mutants were infectious. Three mutants with single point substitutions replicated well in cell culture and exhibited variable neurovirulence in mice. Constructs containing multiple substitutions or any deletions failed to produce infectious viruses. Unexpectedly, a double C57U+G58C mutant replicated as efficiently as D2/IC-30P-A virus, and was more neurovirulent for newborn ICR mice. Thus, despite its predicted additional disruption of the RNA stem structure, the engineered contiguous secondary G58C mutation caused reversion of the partially attenuated phenotype caused by the 5'NCR-C57U mutation.

A combination of naturally occurring mutations in North American West Nile virus nonstructural protein genes and in the 3' untranslated region alters virus phenotype.

We previously reported mutations in North American West Nile viruses (WNVs) with a small-plaque (sp), temperature-sensitive (ts), and/or mouse-attenuated (att) phenotype. Using an infectious clone, site-directed mutations and 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) exchanges were introduced into the WNV NY99 genome. Characterization of mutants demonstrated that a combination of mutations involving the NS4B protein (E249G) together with either a mutation in the NS5 protein (A804V) or three mutations in the 3'UTR (A10596G, C10774U, A10799G) produced sp, ts, and/or att variants. These results suggested that the discovery of North American WNV-phenotypic variants is rare because of the apparent requirement of concurrent polygenic mutations.

Avian virulence and thermostable replication of the North American strain of West Nile virus.

The NY99 genotype of West Nile virus (WNV) introduced into North America has demonstrated high virulence for American crows (AMCRs), whilst a closely related WNV strain (KEN-3829) from Kenya exhibits substantially reduced virulence in AMCRs [Brault, A. C., Langevin, S. A., Bowen, R. A., Panella, N. A., Biggerstaff, B. J., Miller, B. R. & Nicholas, K. (2004). Emerg Infect Dis 10, 2161-2168]. Viruses rescued from infectious cDNA clones of both the NY99 and KEN-3829 strains demonstrated virulence comparable to that of their parental strains in AMCRs. To begin to define parameters that might explain the different virulence phenotypes between these two viruses, temperature-sensitivity assays were performed for both viruses at the high temperatures experienced in viraemic AMCRs. Growth curves of the two WNV strains were performed in African green monkey kidney (Vero; 37-42 degrees C) and duck embryonic fibroblast (DEF; 37-45 degrees C) cells cultured at temperatures that were tolerated by the cell line. Unlike the NY99 virus, marked decreases in KEN-3829 viral titres were detected between 36 and 120 h post-infection (p.i.) at temperatures above 43 degrees C. Replication of KEN-3829 viral RNA was reduced 6500-fold at 72 h p.i. in DEF cells incubated at 44 degrees C relative to levels of intracellular virus-specific RNA measured at 37 degrees C. In contrast, replication of virus derived from the NY99 infectious cDNA at 44 degrees C demonstrated only a 17-fold reduction in RNA level. These results indicated that the ability of WNV NY99 to replicate at the high temperatures measured in infected AMCRs could be an important factor leading to the increased avian virulence and emergence of this strain of WNV.

A mutation in the envelope protein fusion loop attenuates mouse neuroinvasiveness of the NY99 strain of West Nile virus.

Substitutions were engineered individually and in combinations at the fusion loop, receptor-binding domain and a stem-helix structure of the envelope protein of a West Nile virus strain, NY99, and their effects on mouse virulence and presentation of epitopes recognized by monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were assessed. A single substitution within the fusion loop (L107F) attenuated mouse neuroinvasiveness of NY99. No substitutions attenuated NY99 neurovirulence. The L107F mutation also abolished binding of a non-neutralizing MAb, 3D9, whose epitope had not been previously identified. MAb 3D9 was subsequently shown to be broadly cross-reactive with other flaviviruses, consistent with binding near the highly conserved fusion loop.