A cluster-randomized trial of client and provider directed financial interventions to align incentives with appropriate case management in private medicine retailers: results of the TESTsmART Trial in Lagos, Nigeria.

Malaria remains a major health priority in Nigeria. Among children with fever who seek care, less than a quarter gets tested for malaria, leading to inappropriate use of the recommended treatment for malaria; Artemether Combination Therapies (ACT). Here we test an innovative strategy to target ACT subsidies to clients seeking care in Nigeria's private retail health sector who have a confirmed malaria diagnosis. We supported point-of-care malaria testing (mRDTs) in 48 Private Medicine Retailers (PMRs) in the city of Lagos, Nigeria and randomized them to two study arms; a control arm offering subsidized mRDT testing for USD $0.66, and an intervention arm where, in addition to access to subsidized testing as in the control arm, clients who received a positive mRDT at the PMR were eligible for a free (fully subsidized) first-line ACT and PMRs received USD $0.2 for every mRDT performed. Our primary outcome was the proportion of ACTs dispensed to individuals with a positive diagnostic test. Secondary outcomes included proportion of clients who were tested at the PMR and adherence to diagnostic test results. Overall, 23% of clients chose to test at the PMR. Test results seemed to inform treatment decisions and resulted in enhanced targeting of ACTs to confirmed malaria cases with only 26% of test-negative clients purchasing an ACT compared to 58% of untested clients. However, the intervention did not offer further improvements, compared to the control arm, in testing rates or dispensing of ACTs to test-positive clients. We found that ACT subsidies were not passed on to clients testing positive in the intervention arm. We conclude that RDTs could reduce ACT overconsumption in Nigeria's private retail health sector, but PMR-oriented incentive structures are difficult to implement and may need to be complemented with interventions targeting clients of PMRs to increase test uptake and adherence. Clinical Trials Registration Number: NCT04428307.

A cluster-randomized trial of client and provider-directed financial interventions to align incentives with appropriate case management in retail medicine outlets: results of the TESTsmART Trial in western Kenya.

ACTs are responsible for a substantial proportion of the global reduction in malaria mortality over the last ten years. These reductions would not have been possible without publicly-funded subsidies making these drugs accessible and affordable in the private sector. However, inexpensive ACTs available in retail outlets have contributed substantially to their overconsumption. We test an innovative, scalable, and sustainable strategy to target ACT subsidies to clients with a confirmatory diagnosis. We supported point-of-care malaria testing (mRDTs) in 39 retail medicine outlets in western Kenya and randomized them to three study arms; control arm offering subsidized RDT testing for 0.4USD, client-directed intervention where all clients who received a positive RDT at the outlet were eligible for a free (fully subsidized) first-line ACT, and a combined client and provider directed intervention where clients with a positive RDT were eligible for free ACT and outlets received 0.1USD for every RDT performed. Our primary outcome was the proportion of ACT dispensed to individuals with a positive diagnostic test. Secondary outcomes included proportion of clients tested at the outlet and adherence to diagnostic test results. 43% of clients chose to test at the outlet. Test results informed treatment decisions and resulted in targeting of ACTs to confirmed malaria cases - 25.3% of test-negative clients purchased an ACT compared to 75% of untested clients. Client-directed and client+provider-directed interventions did not offer further improvements, compared to the control arm, in testing rates (RD=0.09, 95%CI:-0.08,0.26) or dispensing of ACTs to test-positive clients (RD=0.01,95% CI: -0.14, 0.16). Clients were often unaware of the price they paid for the ACT leading to uncertainty in whether the ACT subsidy was passed on to the client. We conclude that mRDTs could reduce ACT overconsumption in the private retail sector, but incentive structures are difficult to scale and their value to private providers is uncertain.

Influence of age, severity of infection, and co-infection on the duration of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) shedding.

RSV is the most important viral cause of pneumonia and bronchiolitis in children worldwide and has been associated with significant disease burden. With the renewed interest in RSV vaccines, we provide realistic estimates on duration, and influencing factors on RSV shedding which are required to better understand the impact of vaccination on the virus transmission dynamics. The data arise from a prospective study of 47 households (493 individuals) in rural Kenya, followed through a 6-month period of an RSV seasonal outbreak. Deep nasopharyngeal swabs were collected twice each week from all household members, irrespective of symptoms, and tested for RSV by multiplex PCR. The RSV G gene was sequenced. A total of 205 RSV infection episodes were detected in 179 individuals from 40 different households. The infection data were interval censored and assuming a random event time between observations, the average duration of virus shedding was 11·2 (95% confidence interval 10·1-12·3) days. The shedding durations were longer than previous estimates (3·9-7·4 days) based on immunofluorescence antigen detection or viral culture, and were shown to be strongly associated with age, severity of infection, and revealed potential interaction with other respiratory viruses. These findings are key to our understanding of the spread of this important virus and are relevant in the design of control programmes.