Erratum: Treating tobacco dependence: guidance for primary care on life-saving interventions. Position statement of the IPCRG.

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Treating tobacco dependence: guidance for primary care on life-saving interventions. Position statement of the IPCRG.

Tobacco smoking is the world's leading cause of premature death and disability. Global targets to reduce premature deaths by 25% by 2025 will require a substantial increase in the number of smokers making a quit attempt, and a significant improvement in the success rates of those attempts in low, middle and high income countries. In many countries the only place where the majority of smokers can access support to quit is primary care. There is strong evidence of cost-effective interventions in primary care yet many opportunities to put these into practice are missed. This paper revises the approach proposed by the International Primary Care Respiratory Group published in 2008 in this journal to reflect important new evidence and the global variation in primary-care experience and knowledge of smoking cessation. Specific for primary care, that advocates for a holistic, bio-psycho-social approach to most problems, the starting point is to approach tobacco dependence as an eminently treatable condition. We offer a hierarchy of interventions depending on time and available resources. We present an equitable approach to behavioural and drug interventions. This includes an update to the evidence on behaviour change, gender difference, comparative information on numbers needed to treat, drug safety and availability of drugs, including the relatively cheap drug cytisine, and a summary of new approaches such as harm reduction. This paper also extends the guidance on special populations such as people with long-term conditions including tuberculosis, human immunodeficiency virus, cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease, pregnant women, children and adolescents, and people with serious mental illness. We use expert clinical opinion where the research evidence is insufficient or inconclusive. The paper describes trends in the use of waterpipes and cannabis smoking and offers guidance to primary-care clinicians on what to do faced with uncertain evidence. Throughout, it recognises that clinical decisions should be tailored to the individual's circumstances and attitudes and be influenced by the availability and affordability of drugs and specialist services. Finally it argues that the role of the International Primary Care Respiratory Group is to improve the confidence as well as the competence of primary care and, therefore, makes recommendations about clinical education and evaluation. We also advocate for an update to the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines to optimise each primary-care intervention. This International Primary Care Respiratory Group statement has been endorsed by the Member Organisations of World Organization of Family Doctors Europe.

Rapid assessment of the demand and supply of tobacco dependence pharmacotherapy in Uganda.

Tobacco dependence pharmacotherapy (TDP) plays a major role in smoking cessation. We conducted a rapid assessment of current smoking, availability of TDP and the willingness to quit and to pay for TDP among 56 patients with tobacco-attributable diseases and 38 pharmacies in Uganda. Of the 56 patients, 63% were current smokers, 77.4% wanted to quit and 37% were willing to pay. Drugs were largely unavailable: nicotine replacement products were available in only seven pharmacies (18%) and bupropion in three (8%); these cost respectively US$15.7 and US$17.1 for a 1-month supply. Improving supplies and lowering prices could facilitate access to TDP in Uganda.

Le traitement pharmaceutique de la dépendance au tabac (TDP) joue un rôle majeur dans l'arrêt du tabac. Nous avons réalisé une évaluation rapide de la disponibilité du TDP et la volonté d'arrêter et de payer pour le TDP parmi 56 patients atteints de maladies attribuables au tabac et 38 pharmacies en Ouganda. Soixante-trois pourcent des patients étaient des fumeurs actuels, 77,4% souhaitaient arrêter et 37% étaient prêts à payer. Généralement, les médicaments étaient indisponibles : les substituts de la nicotine ne se trouvaient que dans sept pharmacies (18%) et le bupropion dans trois pharmacies (8%) et coûtaient US$15,7 et US$17,1, respectivement, pour un traitement d'un mois. Améliorer l'approvisionnement et réduire les prix pourraient faciliter l'accès au TDP en Ouganda.

El tratamiento farmacológico de la dependencia al tabaco (TDP) cumple una función primordial en la deshabituación tabáquica. Se llevó a cabo una evaluación breve sobre el tabaquismo actual, la disponibilidad del TDP y la buena disposición al abandono del hábito y a sufragar el costo del tratamiento en 56 pacientes aquejados de enfermedades atribuibles al tabaquismo y 38 farmacias de Uganda. El 63% de los pacientes eran fumadores actuales, 77,4% deseaban abandonar el hábito y 37% estaban dispuestos a pagar por el TDP. En general, los medicamentos no estaban al alcance; solo siete farmacias contaban con productos de sustitución de la nicotina (18%) con un costo mensual de US$15,7 y tres farmacias ofrecían bupropión (8%) con un costo de US$17,1 por la dosis mensual. Mejorar el suministro y disminuir los precios, podría favorecer el acceso al TDP en Uganda.

Incomplete sputum smear microscopy monitoring among smear-positive tuberculosis patients in Uganda.

SETTING: All 11 tuberculosis (TB) diagnostic and treatment units in Kyankwanzi and Kiboga Districts in Uganda. OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency of, factors associated with and barriers related to incomplete anti-tuberculosis treatment sputum monitoring. DESIGN: Data were abstracted from anti-tuberculosis treatment and laboratory registers of sputum smear-positive patients who started treatment between January 2009 and December 2011 in the study districts. Patients missing documentation for any smear results at 2 or 3, 5, and 6 or 8 months were classified as having incomplete monitoring. Health providers and patients were interviewed about barriers to sputum monitoring. RESULTS: Overall, 272 (55%) of 492 patients had incomplete monitoring: 16% (78/492) at 2 or 3 months, 39% (181/465) at 5 months and 28% (119/428) at 6 or 8 months of treatment. More sputum results were recorded in laboratory than in TB treatment registers. Incomplete monitoring was significantly associated with being male, living in Kyankwanzi District and not receiving directly observed treatment. Patients' inability to produce sputum, long laboratory waiting times, and insufficient patient and provider education were primary reasons for incomplete monitoring. CONCLUSION: Over half of patients missed at least one smear result during treatment, which has implications for treatment monitoring and treatment outcomes in Uganda.

Evaluation of asthma control using Global Initiative for Asthma criteria and the Asthma Control Test in Uganda.

SETTING: Chest clinic of a national referral hospital in a resource-limited country. OBJECTIVES: To determine the level of asthma control, factors influencing asthma control and the accuracy of the Asthma Control Test (ACT). DESIGN: We collected demographic and clinical data and administered the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) criteria test and the ACT. The proportions of patients in each of the GINA and ACT control categories (uncontrolled, partly controlled and well controlled) were calculated. Multivariate analysis was performed to identify factors associated with asthma control. Diagnostic test parameters for the ACT using GINA criteria as gold standard were calculated. RESULTS: Of 88 asthma patients enrolled, 67% were female. The median age was 34 years (range 12-85). Using GINA criteria, respectively 59 (67%), 17 (19%) and 12 (14%) patients had uncontrolled, partly controlled and well controlled asthma; per ACT, the corresponding figures were respectively 40% (35/88), 43% (38/88) and 17% (15/88). ACT sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive and negative predictive value were respectively 95%, 92%, 99% and 73%. Nasal congestion was associated with uncontrolled asthma (P = 0.031). CONCLUSION: The majority of the patients at the Mulago Hospital have inadequately controlled asthma, and this is associated with nasal congestion. A simple symptom questionnaire, the ACT, can correctly classify asthma control.

Chest X-ray vs. Xpert® MTB/RIF assay for the diagnosis of sputum smear-negative tuberculosis in Uganda.

SETTING: An out-patient clinic in a country with high rates of tuberculosis-human immunodeficiency virus (TB-HIV) co-infection. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analytical study of 123 adults with chronic cough and no previous anti-tuberculosis treatment. Demographic, clinical, chest X-ray (CXR) and GeneXpert® MTB/RIF data were collected. Proportions of TB diagnoses using both tests were calculated and compared using an unpaired t-test. RESULTS: Sixty-six patients (53.7%) were female and 35 (28.5%) tested positive for HIV; 21 (17.1%) were Xpert-positive, while 51 (42.5%) had CXR suggestive of TB (P = 0.0018), of whom only 15 (29.4%) were Xpert-positive. CXR was suggestive of pulmonary TB in 15 (71.4%) of the 21 patients with a positive Xpert test. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of the sputum smear-negative patients did not have TB on single Xpert testing. CXR gave an overestimate of sputum smear-negative TB cases.

Tuberculin skin test conversion among HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy in Uganda.

SETTING: A human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) clinic in a setting of high tuberculosis (TB) and HIV prevalence. OBJECTIVE: To study the incidence of and factors associated with tuberculin skin test (TST) conversion in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART). DESIGN: Prospective cohort study of TST-negative, ART-naïve HIV patients (CD4 cell count < 250 cells/l) without active TB. TST was repeated at 2 months and, if negative, at 6 months. TST positivity was defined as an induration of ≥5 mm. Clinical examination, chest X-ray and CD4 cell counts were performed at baseline and follow-up. Proportions and incidence of TST conversion were calculated, and logistic regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Of the 142 patients, 105 (75.5%) were females. The mean age was 35.9 years (standard deviation 8.1) and the median CD4 cell count was 119 cells/l (interquartile range 42168). The incidence of TST conversion was 30.2/100 person years (95%CI 19.546.8). Conversion was not associated with clinical, CD4 cell count or chest radiography findings. CONCLUSIONS: A high incidence of TST conversion was observed, supporting the World Health Organization recommendation to provide isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) to all HIV patients in high TB prevalence settings. If case-control programmes choose to provide IPT only to TST-positive patients, repeat TST should be considered following initiation of ART.