Preparing for success in final summative medical specialist examinations: The case for RACE.

BACKGROUND: Failure rates on medical specialist final summative examinations in Australia are high, regardless of speciality. Examination failure can have detrimental psycho-social, financial and job security effects on the trainee, while delays in completion of training adversely impacts workforce growth and health outcomes for the community. The study aimed to explore the preparation factors that contribute to ophthalmology trainee success in their final summative examination. METHODS: Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 29 participants via telephone or Zoom with ophthalmology trainees and Fellows. To be eligible, interviewees had to have sat the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Ophthalmologists Advanced Clinical Examination (RACE) within the past five years or were providing supervision to trainees preparing for RACE. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and thematically analysed. RESULTS: Examination success was underpinned by six themes relating to preparation: (i) 'Those who fail to plan, plan to fail', which related to development and adherence to a study plan; (ii) 'It takes a village' encompassed trainees establishing and activating personal and professional supports; (iii) 'Get to know your opponent', which encompassed developing an understanding of the examination construct, format and requirements; (iv) 'There is no substitute for hard work', which related to intensive study over a period of 12-18 months; (v) 'Keep pace with the herd', which referred to benchmarking preparation efforts and progress against peers; and (vi) 'Don't jump the gun', which related to ensuring readiness to sit. CONCLUSIONS: Maximising medical specialist examination pass rates is in the best interest of trainees, training Colleges, health care systems and communities. Recognising and facilitating preparation approaches that foster success in final summative examinations are the collective responsibility of trainees, specialist training Colleges, training networks and health systems. Trainees need to plan for examination success, be self-determined to commit to intensive study over an extended time period and be realistic about their readiness to sit.

Experiences of over-the-counter codeine misusers and accounts of recovery: A qualitative study in Tasmania, Australia.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: There is international concern about misuse of over-the-counter (OTC) codeine, yet few studies have reported the perspectives of misusers themselves. This study explored the experience of OTC codeine misuse and recovery in Tasmania, Australia. DESIGN AND METHODS: Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 15 self-identified long-term users of OTC codeine. The interview guide prompted responses about reasons for codeine use, positive and negative impacts, recovery, identity and codeine accessibility. Transcripts were analysed abductively using qualitative content analysis. Categories that emerged from misuser accounts were aligned to three broad temporal phases: (i) transition to misuse; (ii) growing awareness; and (iii) towards recovery. RESULTS: Salient features of the misuse experience included: initial use for the self-treatment of physical pain; ongoing use to self-medicate physical pain, stress or mental health conditions; a perception of safety of OTC codeine; an insidious transition from use to misuse; growing awareness of a problem over time; support provided by family, friends and the internet; recovery through self-change; and recognition that recovery is an ongoing process. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge and understanding of the experience of OTC codeine misuse and recovery is critical to inform and tailor approaches to prevention and intervention. The findings suggest that strategies to improve the management of pain, stress and mental health, raise self-awareness of problematic use and potential for self-change, and increase social and web-based supports, should be considered when designing health policy initiatives that aim to reduce misuse.

'For pain, no shame' and 'My secret solace': Accounts of over-the-counter codeine dependence using Q methodology.

BACKGROUND: Dependence on over-the-counter (OTC) codeine is recognised internationally as a rising public health issue. The effectiveness of health intervention strategies may be influenced by the beliefs held by those who are dependent. Applying Q methodology, this study aimed to identify shared accounts of OTC codeine dependence. METHODS: Twenty-six participants from Tasmania, Australia, met eligibility criteria for the study as long-term OTC codeine users with a Severity of Dependence Score of five or higher. Forty-six opinion statements about OTC codeine dependence were sourced from the literature and online discussion forums. These were rank-ordered by participants from least to most agree and explanatory comments for the most strongly positioned statements were provided. By-person factor analysis was used to group participants who had sorted the statements similarly. RESULTS: Two distinct accounts of OTC codeine dependence were identified. Participants representing Factor One, 'For pain, no shame', were not ashamed of their OTC codeine use, believed access should not be restricted and regarded it as necessary for the relief of physical pain. In contrast, Factor Two, 'My secret solace', was characterized by feelings of guilt and shame. Participants in this group intentionally used codeine for its effects on mood; to help them relax and to relieve stress, rather than solely for pain relief. They did not consider regular use of codeine to be socially acceptable and hid their use from others. CONCLUSION: The way in which OTC codeine use is viewed by those who are dependent is not uniform. Two distinct accounts were identified in this sample. Participants from each group varied in their beliefs about access, causality, reasons for use and feelings of legitimacy and shame. An understanding of these differences can be used to better target interventions and guide policy for the prevention and management of OTC codeine dependence.

Q sample construction: a novel approach incorporating a Delphi technique to explore opinions about codeine dependence.

BACKGROUND: Q methodology is an evidenced approach to researching subjectivity, involving a combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The methodology has been used successfully in healthcare research to explore the opinions of patients and healthcare providers about topics such as the illness experience, healthcare services, clinical practice and professional training. Q methodology studies require the generation of a Q sample, a set of opinion statements representing the phenomenon of interest. This paper describes a novel and rigorous approach to develop a Q sample for a study exploring misusers' opinions about over-the-counter (OTC) codeine dependence and critically examines the associated methodological issues. METHODS: Development of the Q sample in this study involved three steps; (1) identification of opinion statements via a comprehensive literature search, (2) application of a theoretical framework, the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation - Behaviour (COM-B) model of behaviour, to group and then reduce the number of statements and (3) use of a Delphi technique to achieve expert consensus on the final selection of statements. The Delphi component involved a multidisciplinary panel of 15 addiction experts comprised of doctors, nurses, pharmacists, psychologists and researchers, who were recruited purposively. Experts rated each statement using a 5-point scale of perceived importance. Two Delphi rounds were undertaken and consensus for inclusion of a statement was set at a median score of ≥4 and an interquartile range of ≤1. RESULTS: A total of 842 statements representing codeine misusers' opinions about OTC codeine dependence were identified from the literature. Statements were grouped thematically using the COM-B framework and representative statements were selected, reducing the number to 111. After two Delphi rounds, addiction experts achieved consensus on 46 statements which formed the final Q sample. CONCLUSIONS: This paper describes a new and systematic approach to Q sample construction and explores associated methodological issues that could be useful for those considering Q methodology and for furthering the rigour of this research technique.