Dietary plasticity and broad North Atlantic origins inferred from bulk and amino acid-specific δ15N and δ13C favour killer whale range expansions into Arctic waters.

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) occur seasonally in the eastern Canadian Arctic (ECA), where their range expansion associated with declining sea ice have raised questions about the impacts of increasing killer whale predation pressure on Arctic-endemic prey. We assessed diet and distribution of ECA killer whales using bulk and compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA) of amino acids (AA) of 54 skin biopsies collected from 2009 to 2020 around Baffin Island, Canada. Bulk ECA killer whale skin δ15N and δ13C values did not overlap with potential Arctic prey after adjustment for trophic discrimination, and instead reflected foraging history in the North Atlantic prior to their arrival in the ECA. Adjusted killer whale stable isotope (SI) values primarily overlapped with several species of North Atlantic baleen whales or tuna. Amino acid (AA)-specific δ15N values indicated the ECA killer whales fed primarily on marine mammals, having similar glutamic acid δ15N-phenylalanine δ15N (δ15NGlx-Phe) and threonine δ15N (δ15NThr) as mammal-eating killer whales from the eastern North Pacific (ENP) that served as a comparative framework. However, one ECA whale grouped with the fish-eating ENP ecotype based δ15NThr. Distinctive essential AA δ13C of ECA killer whale groups, along with bulk SI similarity to killer whales from different regions of the North Atlantic, indicates different populations converge in Arctic waters from a broad source area. Generalist diet and long-distance dispersal capacity favour range expansions, and integration of these insights will be critical for assessing ecological impacts of increasing killer whale predation pressure on Arctic-endemic species.

Directed conservation of the world's reef sharks and rays.

Many shark populations are in decline around the world, with severe ecological and economic consequences. Fisheries management and marine protected areas (MPAs) have both been heralded as solutions. However, the effectiveness of MPAs alone is questionable, particularly for globally threatened sharks and rays ('elasmobranchs'), with little known about how fisheries management and MPAs interact to conserve these species. Here we use a dedicated global survey of coral reef elasmobranchs to assess 66 fully protected areas embedded within a range of fisheries management regimes across 36 countries. We show that conservation benefits were primarily for reef-associated sharks, which were twice as abundant in fully protected areas compared with areas open to fishing. Conservation benefits were greatest in large protected areas that incorporate distinct reefs. However, the same benefits were not evident for rays or wide-ranging sharks that are both economically and ecologically important while also threatened with extinction. We show that conservation benefits from fully protected areas are close to doubled when embedded within areas of effective fisheries management, highlighting the importance of a mixed management approach of both effective fisheries management and well-designed fully protected areas to conserve tropical elasmobranch assemblages globally.

Spatial Variation in Mercury Accumulation in Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops spp.) in Southeastern U.S.A.

Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) inhabit bays, sounds, and estuaries (BSEs) throughout the southeast region of the U.S.A. and are sentinel species for human and ecosystem-level health. Dolphins are vulnerable to the bioaccumulation of contaminants through the coastal food chain because they are high-level predators. Currently, there is limited information on the spatial dynamics of mercury accumulation in these dolphins. Total mercury (THg) was measured in dolphin skin from multiple populations across the U.S. Southeast Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts, and the influence of geographic origin, sex, and age class was investigated. Mercury varied significantly among sampling sites and was greatest in dolphins in St. Joseph Bay, Florida Everglades, and Choctawhatchee Bay (14,193 ng/g ± 2196 ng/g, 10,916 ng/g ± 1532 ng/g, and 7333 ng/g ± 1405 ng/g wet mass (wm), respectively) and lowest in dolphins in Charleston and Skidaway River Estuary (509 ng/g ± 32.1 ng/g and 530 ng/g ± 58.4 ng/g wm, respectively). Spatial mercury patterns were consistent regardless of sex or age class. Bottlenose dolphin mercury exposure can effectively represent regional trends and reflect large-scale atmospheric mercury input and local biogeochemical processes. As a sentinel species, the bottlenose dolphin data presented here can direct future studies to evaluate mercury exposure to human residents in St. Joseph Bay, Choctawhatchee Bay, and Florida Coastal Everglades, as well as additional sites with similar geographical, oceanographic, or anthropogenic parameters. These data may also inform state and federal authorities that establish fish consumption advisories to determine if residents in these locales are at heightened risk for mercury toxicity.

Population genomics of the white-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris): Implications for conservation amid climate-driven range shifts.

Climate change is rapidly affecting species distributions across the globe, particularly in the North Atlantic. For highly mobile and elusive cetaceans, the genetic data needed to understand population dynamics are often scarce. Cold-water obligate species such as the white-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) face pressures from habitat shifts due to rising sea surface temperatures in addition to other direct anthropogenic threats. Unravelling the genetic connectivity between white-beaked dolphins across their range is needed to understand the extent to which climate change and anthropogenic pressures may impact species-wide genetic diversity and identify ways to protect remaining habitat. We address this by performing a population genomic assessment of white-beaked dolphins using samples from much of their contemporary range. We show that the species displays significant population structure across the North Atlantic at multiple scales. Analysis of contemporary migration rates suggests a remarkably high connectivity between populations in the western North Atlantic, Iceland and the Barents Sea, while two regional populations in the North Sea and adjacent UK and Irish waters are highly differentiated from all other clades. Our results have important implications for the conservation of white-beaked dolphins by providing guidance for the delineation of more appropriate management units and highlighting the risk that local extirpation may have on species-wide genetic diversity. In a broader context, this study highlights the importance of understanding genetic structure of all species threatened with climate change-driven range shifts to assess the risk of loss of species-wide genetic diversity.

Agonistic interactions initiated by adult bottlenose dolphins on Antillean manatee calves in the Caribbean Sea.

The dynamics and drivers of inter-species interactions in the wild are poorly understood, particularly those involving social animal species. Inter-species interactions between cetaceans and sirenians have rarely been documented and investigated. Here, we report 10 cases of interaction initiated by adult bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) towards Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus). Interactions were documented through behavioral observations in the wild (n = 7) and from the examination of orphaned calves (i.e., tooth rake marks on their body; n = 4) that entered a rehabilitation facility, one individual both observed interacting with dolphins and found stranded with bite marks. Bottlenose dolphins were observed interacting with orphan manatee calves and with mother-calf pairs, exhibiting agonistic behavior (n = 2), affiliative or neutral behaviors (n = 1), but the behavioral contexts of these interactions remain unclear in most cases (n = 7). Information on stranded individuals was collected from four calves (of 13 examined calves) recovered in poor condition with bottlenose dolphin tooth rakes and bite wounds on their bodies, one of which died. Injury from bite wounds varied in extent and severity, ranging from superficial scratches leaving rake marks to deep lacerations. Our findings suggest the regular occurrence of agonistic behaviors initiated by adult bottlenose dolphins and directed toward manatee calves. However, the drivers of these interactions remain unknown and need to be further investigated.

Varying Diet Composition Causes Striking Differences in Legacy and Emerging Contaminant Concentrations in Killer Whales across the North Atlantic.

Lipophilic persistent organic pollutants (POPs) tend to biomagnify in food chains, resulting in higher concentrations in species such as killer whales (Orcinus orca) feeding on marine mammals compared to those consuming fish. Advancements in dietary studies include the use of quantitative fatty acid signature analysis (QFASA) and differentiation of feeding habits within and between populations of North Atlantic (NA) killer whales. This comprehensive study assessed the concentrations of legacy and emerging POPs in 162 killer whales from across the NA. We report significantly higher mean levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, and flame retardants in Western NA killer whales compared to those of Eastern NA conspecifics. Mean ∑PCBs ranged from ∼100 mg/kg lipid weight (lw) in the Western NA (Canadian Arctic, Eastern Canada) to ∼50 mg/kg lw in the mid-NA (Greenland, Iceland) to ∼10 mg/kg lw in the Eastern NA (Norway, Faroe Islands). The observed variations in contaminant levels were strongly correlated with diet composition across locations (inferred from QFASA), emphasizing that diet and not environmental variation in contaminant concentrations among locations is crucial in assessing contaminant-associated health risks in killer whales. These findings highlight the urgency for implementing enhanced measures to safely dispose of POP-contaminated waste, prevent further environmental contamination, and mitigate the release of newer and potentially harmful contaminants.

Vulnerability to climate change of United States marine mammal stocks in the western North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean.

Climate change and climate variability are affecting marine mammal species and these impacts are projected to continue in the coming decades. Vulnerability assessments provide a framework for evaluating climate impacts over a broad range of species using currently available information. We conducted a trait-based climate vulnerability assessment using expert elicitation for 108 marine mammal stocks and stock groups in the western North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. Our approach combined the exposure (projected change in environmental conditions) and sensitivity (ability to tolerate and adapt to changing conditions) of marine mammal stocks to estimate vulnerability to climate change, and categorize stocks with a vulnerability index. The climate vulnerability score was very high for 44% (n = 47) of these stocks, high for 29% (n = 31), moderate for 20% (n = 22), and low for 7% (n = 8). The majority of stocks (n = 78; 72%) scored very high exposure, whereas 24% (n = 26) scored high, and 4% (n = 4) scored moderate. The sensitivity score was very high for 33% (n = 36) of these stocks, high for 18% (n = 19), moderate for 34% (n = 37), and low for 15% (n = 16). Vulnerability results were summarized for stocks in five taxonomic groups: pinnipeds (n = 4; 25% high, 75% moderate), mysticetes (n = 7; 29% very high, 57% high, 14% moderate), ziphiids (n = 8; 13% very high, 50% high, 38% moderate), delphinids (n = 84; 52% very high, 23% high, 15% moderate, 10% low), and other odontocetes (n = 5; 60% high, 40% moderate). Factors including temperature, ocean pH, and dissolved oxygen were the primary drivers of high climate exposure, with effects mediated through prey and habitat parameters. We quantified sources of uncertainty by bootstrapping vulnerability scores, conducting leave-one-out analyses of individual attributes and individual scorers, and through scoring data quality for each attribute. These results provide information for researchers, managers, and the public on marine mammal responses to climate change to enhance the development of more effective marine mammal management, restoration, and conservation activities that address current and future environmental variation and biological responses due to climate change.

Widespread diversity deficits of coral reef sharks and rays.

A global survey of coral reefs reveals that overfishing is driving resident shark species toward extinction, causing diversity deficits in reef elasmobranch (shark and ray) assemblages. Our species-level analysis revealed global declines of 60 to 73% for five common resident reef shark species and that individual shark species were not detected at 34 to 47% of surveyed reefs. As reefs become more shark-depleted, rays begin to dominate assemblages. Shark-dominated assemblages persist in wealthy nations with strong governance and in highly protected areas, whereas poverty, weak governance, and a lack of shark management are associated with depauperate assemblages mainly composed of rays. Without action to address these diversity deficits, loss of ecological function and ecosystem services will increasingly affect human communities.

Critically endangered Rice's whales (Balaenoptera ricei) selectively feed on high-quality prey in the Gulf of Mexico.

Determining the drivers of prey selection in marine predators is critical when investigating ecosystem structure and function. The newly recognized Rice's whale (Balaenoptera ricei) is one of the most critically endangered large whales in the world and endemic to the industrialized Gulf of Mexico. Here, we investigated the drivers of resource selection by Rice's whales in relation to prey availability and energy density. Bayesian stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) mixing models suggest that Rice's whales feed primarily on a schooling fish, Ariomma bondi (66.8% relative contribution). Prey selection using the Chesson's index revealed that active prey selection was found to be positive for three out of the four potential prey identified in the mixing model. A low degree of overlap between prey availability and diet inferred from the mixing model (Pianka Index: 0.333) suggests that prey abundance is not the primary driver of prey selection. Energy density data suggest that prey selection may be primarily driven by the energy content. Results from this study indicate that Rice's whales are selective predators consuming schooling prey with the highest energy content. Environmental changes in the region have the potential to influence prey species that would make them less available to Rice's whales.

Quantitative fatty acid signature analysis reveals a high level of dietary specialization in killer whales across the North Atlantic.

Quantifying the diet composition of apex marine predators such as killer whales (Orcinus orca) is critical to assessing their food web impacts. Yet, with few exceptions, the feeding ecology of these apex predators remains poorly understood. Here, we use our newly validated quantitative fatty acid signature analysis (QFASA) approach on nearly 200 killer whales and over 900 potential prey to model their diets across the 5000 km span of the North Atlantic. Diet estimates show that killer whales mainly consume other whales in the western North Atlantic (Canadian Arctic, Eastern Canada), seals in the mid-North Atlantic (Greenland), and fish in the eastern North Atlantic (Iceland, Faroe Islands, Norway). Nonetheless, diet estimates also varied widely among individuals within most regions. This level of inter-individual feeding variation should be considered for future ecological studies focusing on killer whales in the North Atlantic and other oceans. These estimates reveal remarkable population- and individual-level variation in the trophic ecology of these killer whales, which can help to assess how their predation impacts community and ecosystem dynamics in changing North Atlantic marine ecosystems. This new approach provides researchers with an invaluable tool to study the feeding ecology of oceanic top predators.

Connaître en détails la composition du régime alimentaire des grands prédateurs marins tels que les orques (Orcinus orca) est primordial afin d'évaluer leurs impacts sur les écosystèmes. Pourtant, à quelques exceptions près, l'écologie alimentaire de ces super-prédateurs reste mal comprise. Ici, nous utilisons notre nouvelle approche d'analyse quantitative des signatures d'acides gras (QFASA) sur près de 200 orques et plus de 900 proies potentielles pour modéliser leur régime alimentaire à travers l'Atlantique Nord. Les estimations de leurs régimes alimentaires montrent que les orques consomment principalement d'autres baleines dans l'ouest de l'Atlantique Nord (Arctique canadien, Est du Canada), des phoques dans le milieu de l'Atlantique Nord (Groenland) et des poissons dans l'est de l'Atlantique Nord (Islande, îles Féroé, Norvège). Néanmoins, ces estimations varient considérablement d'un individu à l'autre dans la plupart des régions. Cette variation alimentaire importante entre les individus doit être prise en compte dans les futures études écologiques qui s'intéressent aux orques de l'Atlantique Nord et d'ailleurs. Ces estimations révèlent des variations remarquables dans l'écologie trophique des orques tant au niveau des population que de l'individu, ce qui peut aider à évaluer l'impact de leur prédation sur la dynamique des communautés et des écosystèmes dans un contexte de changements climatiques en l'Atlantique Nord. Cette nouvelle approche fournit aux chercheurs un outil inestimable pour étudier l'écologie alimentaire des super-prédateurs océaniques.

Habitat partitioning, co-occurrence patterns, and mixed-species group formation in sympatric delphinids.

Numerous species have been reported to form mixed-species groups, however, little is known about the interplay between niche partitioning and mixed-species group formation. Furthermore, it is often unclear whether species come together by chance due to overlapping habitat preferences, by shared attraction to resources, or by attraction between them. We assessed habitat partitioning, co-occurrence patterns, and mixed-species group formation of sympatric Australian humpback (Sousa sahulensis) and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) around the North West Cape, Western Australia, with a joint species distribution model and temporal analyses of sighting data. Australian humpback dolphins preferred shallower and more nearshore waters than Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, yet these species co-occurred more often than expected by chance given shared responses to environmental variables. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins were sighted more often than Australian humpback dolphins during the afternoon, however, we did not find any temporal patterns in the occurrence of mixed-species groups. We propose that the positive association in the species' occurrence indicates the active formation of mixed-species groups. By evaluating habitat partitioning and co-occurrence patterns, this study provides direction for future work which should proceed to investigate the benefits that these species may gain from grouping with each other.

Isotopic niche partitioning of co-occurring large marine vertebrates around an Indian ocean tropical oceanic island.

Tropical oceans host a high diversity of species, including large marine consumers. In these oligotrophic ecosystems, oceanic islands often favour the aggregation of species and biomass as they provide feeding opportunities related to the mechanisms of island mass effect. As such, the waters surrounding La Reunion (Southwest Indian Ocean) host seabirds, large pelagic teleosts, elasmobranchs, delphinids and sea turtles. Isotopic niche partitioning and comparison of trophic levels among these species (n = 21) were investigated using stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analysis. Overall, δ13C values were highly variable among taxa, indicating that the species exploit multiple foraging habitats along a coast-open ocean gradient. Overlap in δ15N values was limited, except for teleost species, the two species of sea turtles and two species of delphinids, the Indo-pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) and the Spinner dolphin (Stellena longirostris). Stable isotope analyses of samples collected over a 9-years period on different tissues with different integration times provide a consistent picture of the structure of the community of large marine vertebrates species around La Reunion and highlight the underlying mechanisms to limit the competition between species. The wide range of isotopic values confirms that large marine vertebrates have different trophic roles in coastal marine food webs around this oceanic island, which limits their potential of competitive interactions for resources.

How to define a dolphin "group"? Need for consistency and justification based on objective criteria.

Group living is a critical component of the ecology of social animals such as delphinids. In many studies on these animals, groups represent sampling units that form the basis of the collection and analysis of data on their abundance, behavior, and social structure. Nevertheless, defining what constitutes a group has proven problematic. There is inconsistency in the terms and criteria used and many definitions lack biological justification. We conducted a literature review and an online expert survey to assess various terms (group, school, party, and pod), and their definitions as applied to delphinids to identify issues to ultimately make recommendations. Of 707 studies analyzed, 325 explicitly defined one or more terms, providing 344 definitions. Additionally, 192 definitions were obtained from the survey. Among these definitions, group was the most common term used (review: 286 definitions, 83.1%; survey: 69 definitions, 35.9%) and the most familiar to the survey respondents (73 respondents, 100.0%). In definitions of group, spatial proximity was the most used criterion (review: 200 definitions, 71.2%; survey: 53 definitions, 81.5%) followed by behavior (review: 176 definitions, 62.6%; survey: 38 definitions, 58.5%). The terms and criteria used to define delphinid groups vary considerably. Rather than proposing a single formal definition, we instead recommend that the term group and spatial proximity criteria be used to define sampling units of individuals observed in the field. Furthermore, we propose a process for formulating definitions that involves analyzing interindividual distances to determine naturally occurring patterns that are indicative of group membership. Although this process is based principally on the spatial proximity of individuals, it could also incorporate the behavior of group members by evaluating the influence of behavior on interindividual distances. Such a process produces definitions that are biologically meaningful and compatible across studies and populations, thus increasing our ability to draw strong conclusions about group living in delphinids.

Inter- and intra-specific trophic interactions of coastal delphinids off the eastern coast of South Africa inferred from stable isotope analysis.

Dietary tracers, such as bulk stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes, can be used to investigate the trophic interactions of marine predators, which is useful to assess their ecological roles within communities. These tracers have also been used to elucidate population structure and substructure, which is critical for the better identification of management units for these species affected by a range of threats, particularly bycatch in fishing gears. Off eastern South Africa, large populations of Indo-Pacific bottlenose (Tursiops aduncus) and common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) co-occur and are thought to follow the pulses of shoaling sardines (Sardinops sagax) heading north-east in the austral winter. Here we used δ13C and δ15N to investigate the trophic interactions and define ecological units of these two species along a ≈800 km stretch of the east coast of South Africa, from Algoa Bay to the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Common and bottlenose dolphin dietary niche overlapped by 39.7% overall in our study area, with the highest overlap occurring off the Wild Coast (40.7% at Hluleka). Both stable isotopes were significantly enriched in bottlenose dolphins sampled in the western part of our study area (i.e., Algoa Bay and Amathole) compared to eastern animals (i.e., from Hluleka, Pondoland, and KZN). In areas where genetic information is not available or is insufficient, food web tracers (such as stable isotopes) can be used to group individuals based on trophic ecology, which can provide ecological units for management of populations. The distinct isotope signatures found here for bottlenose dolphins can, therefore, be used as management units for conservation efforts in the future.

A general pattern of trade-offs between ecosystem resistance and resilience to tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclones drive coastal ecosystem dynamics, and their frequency, intensity, and spatial distribution are predicted to shift with climate change. Patterns of resistance and resilience were synthesized for 4138 ecosystem time series from n = 26 storms occurring between 1985 and 2018 in the Northern Hemisphere to predict how coastal ecosystems will respond to future disturbance regimes. Data were grouped by ecosystems (fresh water, salt water, terrestrial, and wetland) and response categories (biogeochemistry, hydrography, mobile biota, sedentary fauna, and vascular plants). We observed a repeated pattern of trade-offs between resistance and resilience across analyses. These patterns are likely the outcomes of evolutionary adaptation, they conform to disturbance theories, and they indicate that consistent rules may govern ecosystem susceptibility to tropical cyclones.

Genomic insights into the historical and contemporary demographics of the grey reef shark.

Analyses of genetic diversity can shed light on both the origins of biodiversity hotspots, as well as the conservation status of species that are impacted by human activities. With these objectives, we assembled a genomic dataset of 14,935 single nucleotide polymorphisms from 513 grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) sampled across 17 locations in the tropical Indo-Pacific. We analysed geographic variation in genetic diversity, estimated ancient and contemporary effective population size (Ne) across sampling locations (using coalescent and linkage disequilibrium methods) and modelled the history of gene flow between the Coral Triangle and the Coral Sea. Genetic diversity decreased with distance away from the Coral Triangle and north-western Australia, implying that C. amblyrhynchos may have originated in this region. Increases in Ne were detected across almost all sampling locations 40,000-90,000 generations ago (approximately 0.6-1.5 mya, given an estimated generation time of 16.4 years), suggesting a range expansion around this time. More recent, secondary increases in Ne were inferred for the Misool and North Great Barrier Reef sampling locations, but joint modelling did not clarify whether these were due to population growth, migration, or both. Despite the greater genetic diversity and ancient Ne observed at sites around Australia and the Coral Triangle, remote reefs around north-western New Caledonia had the highest contemporary Ne, demonstrating the importance of using multiple population size assessment methods. This study provides insight into both the past and present demographics of C. amblyrhynchos and contributes to our understanding of evolution in marine biodiversity hotspots.

Recent expansion of marine protected areas matches with home range of grey reef sharks.

Dramatic declines in reef shark populations have been documented worldwide in response to human activities. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) offer a useful mechanism to protect these species and their roles in coral reef ecosystems. The effectiveness of MPAs notably relies on compliance together with sufficient size to encompass animal home range. Here, we measured home range of 147 grey reef sharks, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, using acoustic telemetry in New Caledonia. The distribution of home range was then compared to local MPA sizes. We report a home range of 12 km2 of reef for the species with strong differences between adult males (21 km2), adult females (4.4 km2) and juveniles (6.2 km2 for males, 2.7 km2 for females). Whereas local historic MPA size seemed adequate to protect reef shark home range in general, these were clearly too small when considering adult males only, which is consistent with the reported failure of MPAs to protect sharks in New Caledonia. Fortunately, the recent implementation of several orders of magnitude larger MPAs in New Caledonia and abroad show that recent Indo-Pacific MPAs are now sufficiently large to protect the home ranges of this species, including males, across its geographical range. However, protection efforts are concentrated in a few regions and cannot provide adequate protection at a global scale.

Factors affecting mercury concentrations in two oceanic cephalopods of commercial interest from the southern Caribbean.

Mercury (Hg) concentrations have significantly increased in oceans during the last century. This element accumulates in marine fauna and can reach toxic levels. Seafood consumption is the main pathway of methylmercury (MeHg) toxicity in humans. Here, we analyzed total Hg (T-Hg) concentrations in two oceanic squid species (Ommastrephes bartramii and Thysanoteuthis rhombus) of an increasing commercial interest off Martinique, French West Indies. Stable isotope ratios reveal a negative linear relationship between δ15N or δ13C in diamondback squid samples. No significant trend was observed between δ34S values and T-Hg concentrations, contrasting with the sulfate availability and sulfide abundance hypotheses. This adds to a growing body of evidence suggesting Hg methylation via sulfate-reducing bacteria is not the main mechanism driving Hg bioavailability in mesopelagic organisms. All squid samples present T-Hg levels below the maximum safe consumption limit (0.5 ppm), deeming the establishment of a commercial squid fishery in the region safe for human consumption.

Moray eels are more common on coral reefs subject to higher human pressure in the greater Caribbean.

Proximity and size of the nearest market ('market gravity') have been shown to have strong negative effects on coral reef fish communities that can be mitigated by the establishment of closed areas. However, moray eels are functionally unique predators that are generally not subject to targeted fishing and should therefore not directly be affected by these factors. We used baited remote underwater video systems to investigate associations between morays and anthropogenic, habitat, and ecological factors in the Caribbean region. Market gravity had a positive effect on morays, while the opposite pattern was observed in a predator group subject to exploitation (sharks). Environmental DNA analyses corroborated the positive effect of market gravity on morays. We hypothesize that the observed pattern could be the indirect result of the depletion of moray competitors and predators near humans.