Study of surgical performance during clavicle plate placements using 2 learning methods: naive practice versus deliberate practice.

BACKGROUND: Companionship and simple experience or naive practice (NP) rarely lead to expert level surgery, in contrast to deliberate practice (DP) where an expert analyzes the learner's errors and sets goals to improve performance. The main hypothesis was that using DP for learning would result in faster and/or greater progress than using NP. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this work was to compare the evolution of the learning curve for clavicle locking plate placement on a sawbone model of a clavicle fracture, by surgical trainees learning via two different methods; NP and DP. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Ten surgical residents, divided into 2 groups of 5, each placed 6 plates. The 6 trials were filmed. The NP group saw an expert video before each placement. The DP group saw this video once and then received personalized advice from the expert for improvement, by analyzing their own video after each subsequent trial. Objective performance (OP) was measured by a standardized evaluation grid (OSATS, with a score ranging from 10 to 50 points per trial), self-evaluation of performance by a numerical scale (from 0 to 10) and stress by an analgesia-nociception index (ANI, calculated by heart rate recording, from 0 to 100). RESULTS: The mean OP at the last trial of clavicle plate placement was 41.8 (NP group) and 48.2 (DP group), with a mean progression from the first to last trials of 0.8 in the NP group, and 5.1 in the DP group. The mean progression in self-evaluation between the first and last trials was 3.4 (NP group) and 4.6 (DP group). The mean progression of the ANI between the first and last trials was -4.5 (NP group) and +5 (DP group). DISCUSSION: The results of learning a clavicle plate osteosynthesis technique measured by OSATS were better with deliberate practice than with naive practice. The progression in self-evaluated performance was better with deliberate practice, but with a higher stress level. CONCLUSION: Deliberate practice is a technique for learning the surgical procedure which complements companionship and experience. It shortens the learning curve and improves the level of performance of surgical trainees. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV; non-interventional research.

m6a methylation orchestrates IMP1 regulation of microtubules during human neuronal differentiation.

Neuronal differentiation requires building a complex intracellular architecture, and therefore the coordinated regulation of defined sets of genes. RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play a key role in this regulation. However, while their action on individual mRNAs has been explored in depth, the mechanisms used to coordinate gene expression programs shaping neuronal morphology are poorly understood. To address this, we studied how the paradigmatic RBP IMP1 (IGF2BP1), an essential developmental factor, selects and regulates its RNA targets during the human neuronal differentiation. We perform a combination of system-wide and molecular analyses, revealing that IMP1 developmentally transitions to and directly regulates the expression of mRNAs encoding essential regulators of the microtubule network, a key component of neuronal morphology. Furthermore, we show that m6A methylation drives the selection of specific IMP1 mRNA targets and their protein expression during the developmental transition from neural precursors to neurons, providing a molecular principle for the onset of target selectivity.

Direct m6A recognition by IMP1 underlays an alternative model of target selection for non-canonical methyl-readers.

m6A methylation provides an essential layer of regulation in organismal development, and is aberrant in a range of cancers and neuro-pathologies. The information encoded by m6A methylation is integrated into existing RNA regulatory networks by RNA binding proteins that recognise methylated sites, the m6A readers. m6A readers include a well-characterised class of dedicated proteins, the YTH proteins, as well as a broader group of multi-functional regulators where recognition of m6A is only partially understood. Molecular insight in this recognition is essential to build a mechanistic understanding of global m6A regulation. In this study, we show that the reader IMP1 recognises the m6A using a dedicated hydrophobic platform that assembles on the methyl moiety, creating a stable high-affinity interaction. This recognition is conserved across evolution and independent from the underlying sequence context but is layered upon the strong sequence specificity of IMP1 for GGAC RNA. This leads us to propose a concept for m6A regulation where methylation plays a context-dependent role in the recognition of selected IMP1 targets that is dependent on the cellular concentration of available IMP1, differing from that observed for the YTH proteins.

Physiological intron retaining transcripts in the cytoplasm abound during human motor neurogenesis.

Intron retention (IR) is now recognized as a dominant splicing event during motor neuron (MN) development; however, the role and regulation of intron-retaining transcripts (IRTs) localized to the cytoplasm remain particularly understudied. Here we show that IR is a physiological process that is spatiotemporally regulated during MN lineage restriction and that IRTs in the cytoplasm are detected in as many as 13% (n = 2297) of the genes expressed during this process. We identify a major class of cytoplasmic IRTs that are not associated with reduced expression of their own genes but instead show a high capacity for RNA-binding protein and miRNA occupancy. Finally, we show that ALS-causing VCP mutations lead to a selective increase in cytoplasmic abundance of this particular class of IRTs, which in turn temporally coincides with an increase in the nuclear expression level of predicted miRNA target genes. Altogether, our study identifies a previously unrecognized class of cytoplasmic intronic sequences with potential regulatory function beyond gene expression.

Numerical simulations of high viscosity DNAPL recovery in highly permeable porous media under isothermal and non-isothermal conditions.

We developed a decimetric size model based on coupling generalized Darcy's law and heat-transfer equations to model viscous dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) pumping through highly permeable porous media under non-isothermal conditions. The presence of fingering and non-wetting phase ganglia was modeled through an unsteady capillary diffusion coefficient and an arbitrary heterogeneous permeability field. The model was validated using existing experimental data of a simple case, an oil injection in a 2D tank packed with glass beads. Next, we compared the results of this model against a DNAPL extracting situation in the 2D tank to better understand the two-phase flow behavior in highly permeable porous media. We found that natural convection during heating plays an essential role in heat transfer, especially in the wetting phase zone. By adding the dynamic effect (unsteady conditions) we were better able to describe the presence of the ganglia in porous media. We observed good agreement between modeled and experimental oil saturation curves until the breakthrough point, with a mean relative error of about 10% for low and high flow rates, and 8% and 16% after breakthrough for low and high flow rates, respectively. Extracting viscous oil at low flow rates and high temperature generates less fingering and is well described by the generalized Darcy's law. The remobilization of residual non-wetting ganglia after the breakthrough point at the outlet is, however, difficult to simulate using the generalized Darcy's law. In the end, we treated this issue by using a perturbed permeability field to simulate the observed fingering in the 2D tank.

Experimental study of thermally enhanced recovery of high-viscosity DNAPL in saturated porous media under non-isothermal conditions.

Thermal enhancement is known to be an efficient way to decrease the residual saturation of some common dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) after pumping. However, the effect of transient heat transfer during the recovery of a high-viscosity contaminant, such as coal tar, in highly permeable porous media is still unknown. A 2D tank experimental setup allowing monitoring of temperature and saturation fields during DNAPL pumping has been developed. Experiments were run under isothermal and non-isothermal conditions, at low and high flow rates. We investigated the presence of viscous fingering and how that influences the shape of the cone of depression, as well as the residual saturation. The saturation fields show that less viscous fingering occurs in pre-heated cases and that heating increases the recovery efficiency. Increasing the temperature increases the critical velocity and the viscosity ratio and helps to stabilize the interface between the non-wetting and wetting phase. Observations were first made on an oil and ethanol fluid pair because its properties were known, before extending the experiments to a coal tar and water fluid pair. Residual oil saturation after pumping was decreased by 6-16% in all pre-heated conditions. Pumping at low flow rate in these conditions leaves the smallest oil residual saturation (20%) after pumping. A low flow rate increases the recovery efficiency by reducing viscous fingering and by spreading the generated heat to a larger part of the tank. Finally, results on coal tar pumping show that the high thermal conductivity of water helps in keeping the temperature high during pumping. The residual coal tar saturation was reduced from 40% at 20 °C to 28% when pre-heating the tank. Operating at a low flow rate and with a uniform temperature is the key to recovering the highest amount of a viscous DNAPL such as coal tar from the soil and satisfying cleanup goals when using thermally enhanced pumping.

Aberrant cytoplasmic intron retention is a blueprint for RNA binding protein mislocalization in VCP-related amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

We recently described aberrantly increased cytoplasmic SFPQ intron-retaining transcripts (IRTs) and concurrent SFPQ protein mislocalization as new hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the generalizability and potential roles of cytoplasmic IRTs in health and disease remain unclear. Here, using time-resolved deep sequencing of nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions of human induced pluripotent stem cells undergoing motor neurogenesis, we reveal that ALS-causing VCP gene mutations lead to compartment-specific aberrant accumulation of IRTs. Specifically, we identify >100 IRTs with increased cytoplasmic abundance in ALS samples. Furthermore, these aberrant cytoplasmic IRTs possess sequence-specific attributes and differential predicted binding affinity to RNA binding proteins. Remarkably, TDP-43, SFPQ and FUS-RNA binding proteins known for nuclear-to-cytoplasmic mislocalization in ALS-abundantly and specifically bind to this aberrant cytoplasmic pool of IRTs. Our data are therefore consistent with a novel role for cytoplasmic IRTs in regulating compartment-specific protein abundance. This study provides new molecular insight into potential pathomechanisms underlying ALS and highlights aberrant cytoplasmic IRTs as potential therapeutic targets.

m6A enhances the phase separation potential of mRNA.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most prevalent modified nucleotide in mRNA1,2, with around 25% of mRNAs containing at least one m6A. Methylation of mRNA to form m6A is required for diverse cellular and physiological processes3. Although the presence of m6A in an mRNA can affect its fate in different ways, it is unclear how m6A directs this process and why the effects of m6A can vary in different cellular contexts. Here we show that the cytosolic m6A-binding proteins-YTHDF1, YTHDF2 and YTHDF3-undergo liquid-liquid phase separation in vitro and in cells. This phase separation is markedly enhanced by mRNAs that contain multiple, but not single, m6A residues. Polymethylated mRNAs act as a multivalent scaffold for the binding of YTHDF proteins, juxtaposing their low-complexity domains and thereby leading to phase separation. The resulting mRNA-YTHDF complexes then partition into different endogenous phase-separated compartments, such as P-bodies, stress granules or neuronal RNA granules. m6A-mRNA is subject to compartment-specific regulation, including a reduction in the stability and translation of mRNA. These studies reveal that the number and distribution of m6A sites in cellular mRNAs can regulate and influence the composition of the phase-separated transcriptome, and suggest that the cellular properties of m6A-modified mRNAs are governed by liquid-liquid phase separation principles.

Established PABPN1 intranuclear inclusions in OPMD muscle can be efficiently reversed by AAV-mediated knockdown and replacement of mutant expanded PABPN1.

Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) is a rare autosomal dominant late-onset muscular dystrophy affecting approximately 1:100 000 individuals in Europe. OPMD is mainly characterized by progressive eyelid drooping (ptosis) and dysphagia although muscles of the limbs can also be affected late in life. This muscle disease is due to a trinucleotide repeat expansion in the polyA-binding protein nuclear-1 gene. Patients express a protein with an 11-18 alanine tract that is misfolded and prone to form intranuclear inclusions, which are the hallmark of the disease. Other features of OPMD include muscle fibrosis and atrophy in affected muscles. Currently, no pharmacological treatments are available, and OPMD patients can only be referred to surgeons for cricopharyngeal myotomy or corrective surgery of extraocular muscles to ease ptosis. We recently tested a two-AAV `silence' and `replace' vector-based gene therapy treatment in a mouse model of OPMD. We demonstrate here that this gene therapy approach can revert already established insoluble aggregates and partially rescues the muscle from atrophy, which are both crucially important since in most cases OPMD patients already have an established disease when diagnosed. This strategy also prevents the formation of muscle fibrosis and stabilizes the muscle strength to the level of healthy muscles. Furthermore, we show here that similar results can be obtained using a single AAV vector incorporating both the `silence' and `replace' cassettes. These results further support the application of a gene therapy approach as a novel treatment for OPMD in humans.

Combined methods to evaluate human cells in muscle xenografts.

Xenotransplantation of human cells into immunodeficient mouse models is a very powerful tool and an essential step for the pre-clinical evaluation of therapeutic cell- and gene- based strategies. Here we describe an optimized protocol combining immunofluorescence and real-time quantitative PCR to both quantify and visualize the fate and localization of human myogenic cells after injection in regenerating muscles of immunodeficient mice. Whereas real-time quantitative PCR-based method provides an accurate quantification of human cells, it does not document their specific localization. The addition of an immunofluorescence approach using human-specific antibodies recognizing engrafted human cells gives information on the localization of the human cells within the host muscle fibres, in the stem cell niche or in the interstitial space. These two combined approaches offer an accurate evaluation of human engraftment including cell number and localization and should provide a gold standard to compare results obtained either using different types of human stem cells or comparing healthy and pathological muscle stem cells between different research laboratories worldwide.

Visuomotor Correlates of Conflict Expectation in the Context of Motor Decisions.

Many behaviors require choosing between conflicting options competing against each other in visuomotor areas. Such choices can benefit from top-down control processes engaging frontal areas in advance of conflict when it is anticipated. Yet, very little is known about how this proactive control system shapes the visuomotor competition. Here, we used electroencephalography in human subjects (male and female) to identify the visual and motor correlates of conflict expectation in a version of the Eriksen Flanker task that required left or right responses according to the direction of a central target arrow surrounded by congruent or incongruent (conflicting) flankers. Visual conflict was either highly expected (it occurred in 80% of trials; mostly incongruent blocks) or very unlikely (20% of trials; mostly congruent blocks). We evaluated selective attention in the visual cortex by recording target- and flanker-related steady-state visual-evoked potentials (SSVEPs) and probed action selection by measuring response-locked potentials (RLPs) in the motor cortex. Conflict expectation enhanced accuracy in incongruent trials, but this improvement occurred at the cost of speed in congruent trials. Intriguingly, this behavioral adjustment occurred while visuomotor activity was less finely tuned: target-related SSVEPs were smaller while flanker-related SSVEPs were higher in mostly incongruent blocks than in mostly congruent blocks, and incongruent trials were associated with larger RLPs in the ipsilateral (nonselected) motor cortex. Hence, our data suggest that conflict expectation recruits control processes that augment the tolerance for inappropriate visuomotor activations (rather than processes that downregulate their amplitude), allowing for overflow activity to occur without having it turn into the selection of an incorrect response.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Motor choices made in front of discordant visual information are more accurate when conflict can be anticipated, probably due to the engagement of top-down control from frontal areas. How this control system modulates activity within visual and motor areas is unknown. Here, we show that, when control processes are recruited in anticipation of conflict, as evidenced by higher midfrontal theta activity, visuomotor activity is less finely tuned: visual processing of the goal-relevant location was reduced and the motor cortex displayed more inappropriate activations, compared with when conflict was unlikely. We argue that conflict expectation is associated with an expansion of the distance-to-selection threshold, improving accuracy while the need for online control of visuomotor activity is reduced.

Assessment of flushing methods for the removal of heavy chlorinated compounds DNAPL in an alluvial aquifer.

Immiscible mobilization and foam flushing were assessed as low surfactant consuming technologies, for the enhanced recovery of dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) residual at a site contaminated by heavy chlorinated compounds. Preliminary experiments in well-controlled conditions demonstrated the phenomena involved in these remediation technologies and their limitations. Furthermore, we characterized the technologies according to by their surfactant consumption (per kg of DNAPL recovered) and the final DNAPL saturation reached. Surfactant foam flushing (SFF) produced lower DNAPL saturation than immiscible mobilization, thanks to its higher viscosity. However, its efficiency is strongly correlated to the pressure gradient (▽P) used during injection, and that is limited by risks of soil fracturing. The two technologies were tested in field cells (10m×10m×10m) delimited by cement/bentonite walls anchored in the clayey substratum. The deepest soil layer was the most contaminated. It was composed of silt-sandy soil and had an average hydraulic conductivity of 10-4ms-1. Field results show that we should now model flushing fluid propagation to design efficient set-ups for recovering the displaced DNAPL.

Fluorinated Sulfilimino Iminiums: Efficient and Versatile Sources of Perfluoroalkyl Radicals under Photoredox Catalysis.

Reported herein is the use of S-perfluoroalkyl sulfilimino iminiums as a new source of RF radicals under visible-light photoredox catalysis (RF =CF3 , C4 F9 , CF2 Br, CFCl2 ). These shelf-stable perfluoroalkyl reagents, readily prepared on gram scale from the corresponding sulfoxide using a one-pot procedure, allow the efficient photoredox-induced oxyperfluoroalkylation of various alkenes using fac-Ir(ppy)3 as the photocatalyst. Importantly, spin-trapping/electron paramagnetic resonance experiments were carried out to characterize all the radical intermediates involved in this radical/cationic process.

α-Phenyl-N-cyclohexyl Nitrones: Preparation and Use as Spin-Traps.

Two bifunctional α-phenyl-N-cyclohexyl nitrones were synthesized with the expectation that the cyclohexyl ring will impart lipophilicity to the molecule, high reactivity to the nitronyl group, and stability to the spin adducts formed. The synthesis of the acid nitrone 4 and its corresponding tert-butyl ester 3 was initiated by a Michael reaction to introduce the cyclohexyl ring. A Zn/AcOH-mediated reduction of the nitro functionality followed by condensation onto benzaldehyde generated the nitronyl function. In agreement with their high lipophilicity values, nitrone 3 was insoluble in water, while nitrone 4 exhibited a poor water solubility. It was determined that the presence of the cyclohexyl ring did not affect either the reduction or oxidation potentials of the nitronyl group in comparison to the classical α-phenyl-N-tert-butylnitrone (PBN). The spin trapping ability of 3 and 4 was investigated by EPR for oxygen- and carbon-centered radicals. In most cases, the nitrones gave rise to a standard six-line EPR spectrum whose values were in agreement with the literature, accompanied by a minor second species. In DMSO, the half-lives of nitrone 3 and 4-OOH adducts were double that of PBN, suggesting that the stabilization comes from the cyclohexyl ring and/or the electronic effect of the carboxylic acid.

Comparison of Motor Inhibition in Variants of the Instructed-Delay Choice Reaction Time Task.

Using instructed-delay choice reaction time (RT) paradigms, many previous studies have shown that the motor system is transiently inhibited during response preparation: motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the primary motor cortex are typically suppressed during the delay period. This effect has been observed in both selected and non-selected effectors, although MEP changes in selected effectors have been more inconsistent across task versions. Here, we compared changes in MEP amplitudes in three different variants of an instructed-delay choice RT task. All variants required participants to choose between left and right index finger movements but the responses were either provided "in the air" (Variant 1), on a regular keyboard (Variant 2), or on a response device designed to control from premature responses (Variant 3). The task variants also differed according to the visual layout (more concrete in Variant 3) and depending on whether participants received a feedback of their performance (absent in Variant 1). Behavior was globally comparable between the three variants of the task although the propensity to respond prematurely was highest in Variant 2 and lowest in Variant 3. MEPs elicited in a non-selected hand were similarly suppressed in the three variants of the task. However, significant differences emerged when considering MEPs elicited in the selected hand: these MEPs were suppressed in Variants 1 and 3 whereas they were often facilitated in Variant 2, especially in the right dominant hand. In conclusion, MEPs elicited in selected muscles seem to be more sensitive to small variations to the task design than those recorded in non-selected effectors, probably because they reflect a complex combination of inhibitory and facilitatory influences on the motor output system. Finally, the use of a standard keyboard seems to be particularly inappropriate because it encourages participants to respond promptly with no means to control for premature responses, probably increasing the relative amount of facilitatory influences at the time motor inhibition is probed.

Nuclear poly(A)-binding protein aggregates misplace a pre-mRNA outside of SC35 speckle causing its abnormal splicing.

A short abnormal polyalanine expansion in the polyadenylate-binding protein nuclear-1 (PABPN1) protein causes oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD). Mutated PABPN1 proteins accumulate as insoluble intranuclear aggregates in muscles of OPMD patients. While the roles of PABPN1 in nuclear polyadenylation and regulation of alternative poly(A) site choice have been established, the molecular mechanisms which trigger pathological defects in OPMD and the role of aggregates remain to be determined. Using exon array, for the first time we have identified several splicing defects in OPMD. In particular, we have demonstrated a defect in the splicing regulation of the muscle-specific Troponin T3 (TNNT3) mutually exclusive exons 16 and 17 in OPMD samples compared to controls. This splicing defect is directly linked to the SC35 (SRSF2) splicing factor and to the presence of nuclear aggregates. As reported here, PABPN1 aggregates are able to trap TNNT3 pre-mRNA, driving it outside nuclear speckles, leading to an altered SC35-mediated splicing. This results in a decreased calcium sensitivity of muscle fibers, which could in turn plays a role in muscle pathology. We thus report a novel mechanism of alternative splicing deregulation that may play a role in various other diseases with nuclear inclusions or foci containing an RNA binding protein.

Comparison of the two cerebral hemispheres in inhibitory processes operative during movement preparation.

Neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies suggest that in right-handed individuals, the left hemisphere plays a dominant role in praxis, relative to the right hemisphere. However hemispheric asymmetries assessed with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has not shown consistent differences in corticospinal (CS) excitability of the two hemispheres during movements. In the current study, we systematically explored hemispheric asymmetries in inhibitory processes that are manifest during movement preparation and initiation. Single-pulse TMS was applied over the left or right primary motor cortex (M1LEFT and M1RIGHT, respectively) to elicit motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in the contralateral hand while participants performed a two-choice reaction time task requiring a cued movement of the left or right index finger. In Experiments 1 and 2, TMS probes were obtained during a delay period following the presentation of the preparatory cue that provided partial or full information about the required response. MEPs were suppressed relative to baseline regardless of whether they were elicited in a cued or uncued hand. Importantly, the magnitude of these inhibitory changes in CS excitability was similar when TMS was applied over M1LEFT or M1RIGHT, irrespective of the amount of information carried by the preparatory cue. In Experiment 3, there was no preparatory cue and TMS was applied at various time points after the imperative signal. When CS excitability was probed in the cued effector, MEPs were initially inhibited and then rose across the reaction time interval. This function was similar for M1LEFT and M1RIGHT TMS. When CS excitability was probed in the uncued effector, MEPs remained inhibited throughout the RT interval. However, MEPs in right FDI became more inhibited during selection and initiation of a left hand movement, whereas MEPs in left FDI remained relatively invariant across RT interval for the right hand. In addition to these task-specific effects, there was a global difference in CS excitability across experiments between the two hemispheres. When the intensity of stimulation was set to 115% of the resting threshold, MEPs were larger when the TMS probe was applied over the M1LEFT than over M1RIGHT. In summary, while the latter result suggests that M1LEFT is more excitable than M1RIGHT, the recruitment of preparatory inhibitory mechanisms is similar within the two cerebral hemispheres.

Combining a NHS ester and glutaraldehyde improves crosslinking prior to MALDI MS analysis of intact protein complexes.

Protein complexes play pivotal roles in cellular life. Nevertheless, their characterization remains a substantial challenge. Mass spectrometry (MS) is an emerging tool to study protein assemblies, and electrospray ionization (ESI) is often used because it preserves non-covalent interactions. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) represents an important alternative to ESI because it is more tolerant to salts and detergents (e.g. necessary in the case of membrane complex analyses). Prior to MALDI-MS, the subunits should be crosslinked (XLed). Moreover, crosslinking (XLing) is useful when constraint distances are determined to obtain low-resolution structural information. Here we report a novel XLing approach to study protein complexes with MALDI-MS. We investigated two tetramers (i.e. alcohol dehydrogenase and aldolase) larger than 140 kDa at two pH values (7.2 and 8.0). We tested two different crosslinkers (XLers) (i.e. BS(3) and glutaraldehyde), used separately or in combination. We utilized gentle agitation and ultracentrifugation. Our data shows that the pH influenced the XLing when using a single XLer. Combining two XLers was demonstrated to be more efficient than using a reagent alone. In particular, the combination determined a higher degree of XLing and lower mass shift. This could suggest a ranking in target amino acid availability. First residues at specific distances are linked by BS(3) , then glutaraldehyde binds residues that are still available at larger distances. Ultracentrifugation and gentle agitation both provide similar degrees of XLing, but the former method determined a lower mass increment resulting from redundant XLing. To conclude, we present an efficient dual XLing approach for determining mass and stoichiometry of protein assemblies.

Increased Reliance on Value-based Decision Processes Following Motor Cortex Disruption.

BACKGROUND: During motor decision making, the neural activity in primary motor cortex (M1) encodes dynamically the competition occurring between potential action plans. A common view is that M1 represents the unfolding of the outcome of a decision process taking place upstream. Yet, M1 could also be directly involved in the decision process. OBJECTIVE: Here we tested this hypothesis by assessing the effect of M1 disruption on a motor decision-making task. METHODS: We applied continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) to inhibit either left or right M1 in different groups of subjects and included a third control group with no stimulation. Following cTBS, participants performed a task that required them to choose between two finger key-presses with the right hand according to both perceptual and value-based information. Effects were assessed by means of generalized linear mixed models and computational simulations. RESULTS: In all three groups, subjects relied both on perceptual (P < 0.0001) and value-based information (P = 0.003) to reach a decision. Yet, left M1 disruption led to an increased reliance on value-based information (P = 0.03). This result was confirmed by a computational model showing an increased weight of the valued-based process on the right hand finger choices following left M1 cTBS (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that M1 is involved in motor decision making, possibly by weighting the final integration of multiple sources of evidence driving motor behaviors.

Mitochondrial dysfunction reveals the role of mRNA poly(A) tail regulation in oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy pathogenesis.

Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD), a late-onset disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of specific muscles, results from the extension of a polyalanine tract in poly(A) binding protein nuclear 1 (PABPN1). While the roles of PABPN1 in nuclear polyadenylation and regulation of alternative poly(A) site choice are established, the molecular mechanisms behind OPMD remain undetermined. Here, we show, using Drosophila and mouse models, that OPMD pathogenesis depends on affected poly(A) tail lengths of specific mRNAs. We identify a set of mRNAs encoding mitochondrial proteins that are down-regulated starting at the earliest stages of OPMD progression. The down-regulation of these mRNAs correlates with their shortened poly(A) tails and partial rescue of their levels when deadenylation is genetically reduced improves muscle function. Genetic analysis of candidate genes encoding RNA binding proteins using the Drosophila OPMD model uncovers a potential role of a number of them. We focus on the deadenylation regulator Smaug and show that it is expressed in adult muscles and specifically binds to the down-regulated mRNAs. In addition, the first step of the cleavage and polyadenylation reaction, mRNA cleavage, is affected in muscles expressing alanine-expanded PABPN1. We propose that impaired cleavage during nuclear cleavage/polyadenylation is an early defect in OPMD. This defect followed by active deadenylation of specific mRNAs, involving Smaug and the CCR4-NOT deadenylation complex, leads to their destabilization and mitochondrial dysfunction. These results broaden our understanding of the role of mRNA regulation in pathologies and might help to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative disorders that involve mitochondrial dysfunction.