Analysis of narrative assessments of internal medicine resident performance: are there differences associated with gender or race and ethnicity?

BACKGROUND: Equitable assessment is critical in competency-based medical education. This study explores differences in key characteristics of qualitative assessments (i.e., narrative comments or assessment feedback) of internal medicine postgraduate resident performance associated with gender and race and ethnicity. METHODS: Analysis of narrative comments included in faculty assessments of resident performance from six internal medicine residency programs was conducted. Content analysis was used to assess two key characteristics of comments- valence (overall positive or negative orientation) and specificity (detailed nature and actionability of comment) - via a blinded, multi-analyst approach. Differences in comment valence and specificity with gender and race and ethnicity were assessed using multilevel regression, controlling for multiple covariates including quantitative competency ratings. RESULTS: Data included 3,383 evaluations with narrative comments by 597 faculty of 698 residents, including 45% of comments about women residents and 13.2% about residents who identified with race and ethnicities underrepresented in medicine. Most comments were moderately specific and positive. Comments about women residents were more positive (estimate 0.06, p 0.045) but less specific (estimate - 0.07, p 0.002) compared to men. Women residents were more likely to receive non-specific, weakly specific or no comments (adjusted OR 1.29, p 0.012) and less likely to receive highly specific comments (adjusted OR 0.71, p 0.003) or comments with specific examples of things done well or areas for growth (adjusted OR 0.74, p 0.003) than men. Gendered differences in comment specificity and valence were most notable early in training. Comment specificity and valence did not differ with resident race and ethnicity (specificity: estimate 0.03, p 0.32; valence: estimate - 0.05, p 0.26) or faculty gender (specificity: estimate 0.06, p 0.15; valence: estimate 0.02 p 0.54). CONCLUSION: There were significant differences in the specificity and valence of qualitative assessments associated with resident gender with women receiving more praising but less specific and actionable comments. This suggests a lost opportunity for well-rounded assessment feedback to the disadvantage of women.

Exploring gender and thematic differences in qualitative assessments of internal medicine resident performance.

INTRODUCTION: Evidence suggests gender disparities in medical education assessment, including differences in ratings of competency and narrative comments provided in resident performance assessments. This study explores how gender manifests within the content of qualitative assessments (i.e., narrative comments or performance feedback) of resident performance. METHODS: Qualitative content analysis was used to explore gender-based differences in narrative comments included in faculty assessments of resident performance during inpatient medicine rotations at six Internal Medicine residency programs, 2016-2017. A blinded, multi-analyst approach was employed to identify themes across comments. Patterns in themes with resident gender and post-graduate year (PGY) were explored, focusing on PGY2 and PGY3 when residents are serving in the team leader role. RESULTS: Data included 3,383 evaluations with narrative comments of 385 men (55.2%) and 313 women residents (44.8%). There were thematic differences in narrative comments received by men and women residents and how these themes manifested within comments changed with training time. Compared to men, comments about women had a persistent relationship-orientation and emphasized confidence over training including as interns and in PGY2 and PGY3, when serving as team leader. The relationship-orientation was characterized not only by the residents' communal attributes but also their interpersonal and communication skills, including efforts supporting others and establishing the tone for the team. Comments about women residents often highlighted confidence, including recommendations around behaviors that convey confidence in decision-making and team leadership. DISCUSSION: There were gender-based thematic differences in qualitative assessments. Comments about women resident team leaders highlight relationship building skills and urge confidence and actions that convey confidence as team leader. Persistent attention to communal skills suggests gendered expectations for women resident team leaders and a lost opportunity for well-rounded feedback to the disadvantage of women residents. These findings may inform interventions to promote equitable assessment, such as providing feedback across the competencies.

A signaling complex of adenylate cyclase CyaC of Sinorhizobium meliloti with cAMP and the transcriptional regulators Clr and CycR.

BACKGROUND: Adenylate cyclases (ACs) generate the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP), which is found in all domains of life and is involved in the regulation of various cell physiological and metabolic processes. In the plant symbiotic bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti, synthesis of cAMP by the membrane-bound AC CyaC responds to the redox state of the respiratory chain and the respiratory quinones. However, nothing is known about the signaling cascade that is initiated by cAMP produced by CyaC. RESULTS: Here, the CRP-like transcriptional regulator Clr and the TetR-like regulator CycR (TR01819 protein) were identified to interact with CyaC using the bacterial two-hybrid system (BACTH), co-sedimentation assays, and surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Interaction of CycR with Clr, and of CyaC with Clr requires the presence of cAMP and of ATP, respectively, whereas that of CyaC with CycR was independent of the nucleotides. CONCLUSION: The data implicate a ternary CyaC×CycR×cAMP-Clr complex, functioning as a specific signaling cascade which is formed after activation of CyaC and synthesis of cAMP. cAMP-Clr is thought to work in complex with CycR to regulate a subset of genes of the cAMP-Clr regulon in S. meliloti.

Association of Gender and Race/Ethnicity with Internal Medicine In-Training Examination Performance in Graduate Medical Education.

BACKGROUND: Disparities in objective assessments in graduate medical education such as the In-Training Examination (ITE) that disadvantage women and those self-identifying with race/ethnicities underrepresented in medicine (URiM) are of concern. OBJECTIVE: Examine ITE trends longitudinally across post-graduate year (PGY) with gender and race/ethnicity. DESIGN: Longitudinal analysis of resident ITE metrics at 7 internal medicine residency programs, 2014-2019. ITE trends across PGY of women and URiM residents compared to non-URiM men assessed via ANOVA. Those with ITE scores associated with less than 90% probability of passing the American Board of Internal Medicine certification exam (ABIM-CE) were identified and odds of being identified as at-risk between groups were assessed with chi square. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 689 IM residents, including 330 women and URiM residents (48%). MAIN MEASURES: ITE score KEY RESULTS: There was a significant difference in ITE score across PGY for women and URiM residents compared to non-URiM men (F(2, 1321) 4.46, p=0.011). Adjusting for program, calendar year, and baseline ITE, women and URiM residents had smaller ITE score gains (adjusted mean change in score between PGY1 and PGY3 (se), non-URiM men 13.1 (0.25) vs women and URiM residents 11.4 (0.28), p<0.001). Women and URiM residents had greater odds of being at potential risk for not passing the ABIM-CE (OR 1.75, 95% CI 1.10 to 2.78) with greatest odds in PGY3 (OR 3.13, 95% CI 1.54 to 6.37). CONCLUSION: Differences in ITE over training were associated with resident gender and race/ethnicity. Women and URiM residents had smaller ITE score gains across PGY translating into greater odds of potentially being seen as at-risk for not passing the ABIM-CE. Differences in ITE over training may reflect differences in experiences of women and URiM residents during training and may lead to further disparities.

Association Between Resident Race and Ethnicity and Clinical Performance Assessment Scores in Graduate Medical Education.

PURPOSE: To assess the association between internal medicine (IM) residents' race/ethnicity and clinical performance assessments. METHOD: The authors conducted a cross-sectional analysis of clinical performance assessment scores at 6 U.S. IM residency programs from 2016 to 2017. Residents underrepresented in medicine (URiM) were identified using self-reported race/ethnicity. Standardized scores were calculated for Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education core competencies. Cross-classified mixed-effects regression assessed the association between race/ethnicity and competency scores, adjusting for rotation time of year and setting; resident gender, postgraduate year, and IM In-Training Examination percentile rank; and faculty gender, rank, and specialty. RESULTS: Data included 3,600 evaluations by 605 faculty of 703 residents, including 94 (13.4%) URiM residents. Resident race/ethnicity was associated with competency scores, with lower scores for URiM residents (difference in adjusted standardized scores between URiM and non-URiM residents, mean [standard error]) in medical knowledge (-0.123 [0.05], P = .021), systems-based practice (-0.179 [0.05], P = .005), practice-based learning and improvement (-0.112 [0.05], P = .032), professionalism (-0.116 [0.06], P = .036), and interpersonal and communication skills (-0.113 [0.06], P = .044). Translating this to a 1 to 5 scale in 0.5 increments, URiM resident ratings were 0.07 to 0.12 points lower than non-URiM resident ratings in these 5 competencies. The interaction with faculty gender was notable in professionalism (difference between URiM and non-URiM for men faculty -0.199 [0.06] vs women faculty -0.014 [0.07], P = .01) with men more than women faculty rating URiM residents lower than non-URiM residents. Using the 1 to 5 scale, men faculty rated URiM residents 0.13 points lower than non-URiM residents in professionalism. CONCLUSIONS: Resident race/ethnicity was associated with assessment scores to the disadvantage of URiM residents. This may reflect bias in faculty assessment, effects of a noninclusive learning environment, or structural inequities in assessment.

The micro revolution: effect of Bite-Sized Teaching (BST) on learner engagement and learning in postgraduate medical education.

CONTEXT: Bite-sized learning is an instructional method that utilizes brief, focused learning units. This approach may be beneficial in medical education given demands on learner time and cognitive load. This study aims to assess the impact of this approach on knowledge acquisition and learner attitudes in postgraduate medical education. METHODS: An instructional method, termed Bite-Sized Teaching (BST), was implemented within the curriculum at a US Internal Medicine postgraduate training program. In BST, content is distilled into manageable units focused on relevant schemas and delivered via brief peer teaching. A two-fold assessment of BST was performed that included cross sectional survey to assess learner attitudes and experiences and a controlled study to assess knowledge acquisition with BST and case-based teaching control. RESULTS: One hundred and six of 171 residents (62% response rate) completed the survey. Most residents (79.8%) reported BST was among the best conference types in the curriculum. Important components of BST cited by residents include the distilled content, multiple short talk format and peer teaching. Residents report incorporating what they learned via BST into their teaching (76.1%) and clinical practice (74.1%). Resident who had participated as speaker were significantly more likely to report incorporating learning from BST into their teaching (87.2% vs 63.0%, p < 0.01, Cramer's V effect size = 0.37) and clinical practice (89.7% vs 65.3%, p = 0.02, Cramer's V effect size 0.28). Fifty-one residents participated in the knowledge assessment. Residents taught via BST scored significantly higher on immediate post-test compared to case-based teaching (score [SE] 62.5% [1.9] vs 55.2% [2.4], p = 0.03, Hedges g effect size 0.66). While both groups improved over pretest, there was no significant difference in scores between BST and case-based teaching at two (score [SE] 57.1 [2.1] vs 54.8 [2.5], p = 0.54) and six weeks (score [SD] 55.9 [2.1] vs 53.0 [2.9], p = 0.43). CONCLUSIONS: Teaching via brief, focused learning units delivered by peers is well received by learners and appears to have a significantly greater impact on immediate knowledge recall than case-based teaching. Further study on long term knowledge retention and behaviors is needed. Bite-Sized Teaching may be a promising instructional approach in medical education.

Sensing of O2 and nitrate by bacteria: alternative strategies for transcriptional regulation of nitrate respiration by O2 and nitrate.

Many bacteria are able to use O2 and nitrate as alternative electron acceptors for respiration. Strategies for regulation in response to O2 and nitrate can vary considerably. In the paradigmatic system of E. coli (and γ-proteobacteria), regulation by O2 and nitrate is established by the O2 -sensor FNR and the two-component system NarX-NarL (for nitrate regulation). Expression of narGHJI is regulated by the binding of FNR and NarL to the promoter. A similar strategy by individual regulation in response to O2 and nitrate is verified in many genera by the use of various types of regulators. Otherwise, in the soil bacteria Bacillus subtilis (Firmicutes) and Streptomyces (Actinobacteria), nitrate respiration is subject to anaerobic induction, without direct nitrate induction. In contrast, the NreA-NreB-NreC two-component system of Staphylococcus (Firmicutes) performs joint sensing of O2 and nitrate by interacting O2 and nitrate sensors. The O2 -sensor NreB phosphorylates the response regulator NreC to activate narGHJI expression. NreC-P transmits the signal for anaerobiosis to the promoter. The nitrate sensor NreA modulates NreB function by converting NreB in the absence of nitrate from the kinase to a phosphatase that dephosphorylates NreC-P. Thus, widely different strategies for coordinating the response to O2 and nitrate have evolved in bacteria.

Gender Representation Matters: Intervention to Solicit Medical Resident Input to Enable Equity in Leadership in Graduate Medical Education.

PROBLEM: Gender equity in leadership across academic medicine remains a concern. The case of chief resident (CR) offers an opportunity to explore novel strategies in leadership selection in graduate medical education (GME). Means of identifying potential candidates for CR often rely on faculty assessment of resident performance, yet implicit gender bias has the potential to influence this assessment. APPROACH: To diversify the metrics used in CR selection, an intervention was implemented to solicit resident input to identify candidates for CR at 2 U.S. internal medicine residency programs in 2018 and 2019. This involved a simple, cross-sectional survey of residents in which they were asked to identify individual residents as good candidates for consideration for CR. OUTCOMES: There were 298 of 518 internal medicine resident responses to this intervention across sites and years (mean 58.2% response rate). Nomination patterns of residents and program leaders correlated significantly (correlation coefficient 0.62, P < .001). Controlling for site and year, gender was a significant factor associated with who residents nominated for CR (ß-coefficient 0.325, P = .004) with women residents more likely to identify women for CR (odds ratio 1.38, 95% confidence interval 1.11-1.73). Fifty residents nominated themselves for CR, and there was no significant difference by gender (ß-coefficient 0.038, P = .91). NEXT STEPS: Soliciting resident input to identify candidates for CR may enable gender representation of candidates for this position. Influencing candidate choices may be a promising way to impact leadership selection in medicine.

Association of Gender With Learner Assessment in Graduate Medical Education.

Importance: Gender bias may affect assessment in competency-based medical education. Objective: To evaluate the association of gender with assessment of internal medicine residents. Design, Setting, and Participants: This multisite, retrospective, cross-sectional study included 6 internal medicine residency programs in the United States. Data were collected from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2017, and analyzed from June 7 to November 6, 2019. Exposures: Faculty assessments of resident performance during general medicine inpatient rotations. Main Outcomes and Measures: Standardized scores were calculated based on rating distributions for the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education's core competencies and internal medicine Milestones at each site. Standardized scores are expressed as SDs from the mean. The interaction of gender and postgraduate year (PGY) with standardized scores was assessed, adjusting for site, time of year, resident In-Training Examination percentile rank, and faculty rank and specialty. Results: Data included 3600 evaluations for 703 residents (387 male [55.0%]) by 605 faculty (318 male [52.6%]). Interaction between resident gender and PGY was significant in 6 core competencies. In PGY2, female residents scored significantly higher than male residents in 4 of 6 competencies, including patient care (mean standardized score [SE], 0.10 [0.04] vs 0.22 [0.05]; P = .04), systems-based practice (mean standardized score [SE], -0.06 [0.05] vs 0.13 [0.05]; P = .003), professionalism (mean standardized score [SE], -0.04 [0.06] vs 0.21 [0.06]; P = .001), and interpersonal and communication skills (mean standardized score [SE], 0.06 [0.05] vs 0.32 [0.06]; P < .001). In PGY3, male residents scored significantly higher than female patients in 5 of 6 competencies, including patient care (mean standardized score [SE], 0.47 [0.05] vs 0.32 [0.05]; P = .03), medical knowledge (mean standardized score [SE], 0.47 [0.05] vs 0.24 [0.06]; P = .003), systems-based practice (mean standardized score [SE], 0.30 [0.05] vs 0.12 [0.06]; P = .02), practice-based learning (mean standardized score [SE], 0.39 [0.05] vs 0.16 [0.06]; P = .004), and professionalism (mean standardized score [SE], 0.35 [0.05] vs 0.18 [0.06]; P = .03). There was a significant increase in male residents' competency scores between PGY2 and PGY3 (range of difference in mean adjusted standardized scores between PGY2 and PGY3, 0.208-0.391; P ≤ .002) that was not seen in female residents' scores (range of difference in mean adjusted standardized scores between PGY2 and PGY3, -0.117 to 0.101; P ≥ .14). There was a significant increase in male residents' scores between PGY2 and PGY3 cohorts in 6 competencies with female faculty and in 4 competencies with male faculty. There was no significant change in female residents' competency scores between PGY2 to PGY3 cohorts with male or female faculty. Interaction between faculty-resident gender dyad and PGY was significant in the patient care competency (ß estimate [SE] for female vs male dyad in PGY1 vs PGY3, 0.184 [0.158]; ß estimate [SE] for female vs male dyad in PGY2 vs PGY3, 0.457 [0.181]; P = .04). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, resident gender was associated with differences in faculty assessments of resident performance, and differences were linked to PGY. In contrast to male residents' scores, female residents' scores displayed a peak-and-plateau pattern whereby assessment scores peaked in PGY2. Notably, the peak-and-plateau pattern was seen in assessments by male and female faculty. Further study of factors that influence gender-based differences in assessment is needed.

Control of the bifunctional O2 -sensor kinase NreB of Staphylococcus carnosus by the nitrate sensor NreA: Switching from kinase to phosphatase state.

The NreB-NreC two-component system of Staphylococcus carnosus for O2 sensing cooperates with the accessory nitrate sensor NreA in the NreA-NreB-NreC system for coordinated sensing and regulation of nitrate respiration by O2 and nitrate. ApoNreA (NreA in the absence of nitrate) interacts with NreB and inhibits NreB autophosphorylation (and activation). NreB contains the phosphatase motif DxxxQ. The present study shows that NreB on its own was inactive for the dephosphorylation of the phosphorylated response regulator NreC (NreC-P), but co-incubation with NreB and NreA stimulated NreC-P dephosphorylation. Either the presence of NreA·NO3- instead of apoNreA or mutation of the phosphatase motif (D160 or Q164) of NreB abrogated phosphatase activity of NreB. Phosphatase activity was observed for anoxic (active) NreB as well as oxic NreB, therefore the functional state of NreB is not relevant for phosphatase activity. Thus, NreB is a bifunctional sensor kinase with an integral cryptic phosphatase activity. Activation of phosphatase activity and dephosphorylation of NreC-P requires NreA as a cofactor. Accordingly, NreA and nitrate have major and dual roles in NreA-NreB-NreC regulation by (i) inhibiting NreB phosphorylation and (ii) triggering a kinase/phosphatase switch of NreB when present as apoNreA.

Delivering on the Promise: Exploring Training Characteristics and Graduate Career Pursuits of Primary Care Internal Medicine Residency Programs and Tracks.

BACKGROUND: Specialized primary care internal medicine (PC IM) residency programs and tracks aim to provide dedicated PC training. How programs deliver this is unclear. OBJECTIVE: We explored how PC IM programs and tracks provide ambulatory training. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey from 2012 to 2013 of PC IM program and track leaders via a search of national databases and program websites. We reported PC IM curricular content, clinical experiences, and graduate career pursuits, and assessed correlation between career pursuits and curricular content and clinical experiences. RESULTS: Forty-five of 70 (64%) identified PC IM programs and tracks completed the survey. PC IM programs provide a breadth of curricular content and clinical experiences, including a mean 22.8 weeks ambulatory training and a mean 69.4 continuity clinics per year. Of PC IM graduates within 5 years, 55.8% pursue PC or general internal medicine (GIM) careers and 23.1% pursue traditional subspecialty fellowship training. Curricular content and clinical experiences correlate weakly with career choices. PC IM graduates pursuing PC or GIM careers correlated with ambulatory rotation in women's health (correlation coefficient [rho] = 0.36, P = .034) and mental health (rho = 0.38, P = .023) and curricular content in teaching and medical education (rho = 0.35, P = .035). PC IM graduates pursuing subspecialty fellowship negatively correlated with curricular content in leadership and teams (rho = -0.48, P = .003) and ambulatory training time (rho = -0.38, P = .024). CONCLUSIONS: PC IM programs and tracks largely deliver on the promise to provide PC training and education and produce graduates engaged in PC and GIM.

Gender Bias in Resident Assessment in Graduate Medical Education: Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Competency-based medical education relies on meaningful resident assessment. Implicit gender bias represents a potential threat to the integrity of resident assessment. We sought to examine the available evidence of the potential for and impact of gender bias in resident assessment in graduate medical education. METHODS: A systematic literature review was performed to evaluate the presence and influence of gender bias on resident assessment. We searched Medline and Embase databases to capture relevant articles using a tiered strategy. Review was conducted by two independent, blinded reviewers. We included studies with primary objective of examining the impact of gender on resident assessment in graduate medical education in the USA or Canada published from 1998 to 2018. RESULTS: Nine studies examined the existence and influence of gender bias in resident assessment and data included rating scores and qualitative comments. Heterogeneity in tools, outcome measures, and methodologic approach precluded meta-analysis. Five of the nine studies reported a difference in outcomes attributed to gender including gender-based differences in traits ascribed to residents, consistency of feedback, and performance measures. CONCLUSION: Our review suggests that gender bias poses a potential threat to the integrity of resident assessment in graduate medical education. Future study is warranted to understand how gender bias manifests in resident assessment, impact on learners and approaches to mitigate this bias.

The Growth of Hospitalists and the Future of the Society of General Internal Medicine: Results from the 2014 Membership Survey.

According to the most recent annual membership surveys, hospitalists are a rapidly growing component of the Society of General Internal Medicine (SGIM). Should this trend continue, hospitalists could increase from 22% of SGIM membership in 2014 to nearly 33% by 2020. Only 34% of hospitalists who responded to the survey, however, consider SGIM their academic home, compared to 54% of non-hospitalist respondents. Based on these survey findings, it is clear that the landscape of general internal medicine is changing with the growth of hospitalists, and SGIM will need to strategize to keep these hospitalist members actively engaged in the organization.

Metformin-associated lactic acidosis.

: Metformin is the most commonly prescribed oral antidiabetic agent. Despite a good safety profile in most patients with diabetes, the risk of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is real if safety guidelines are ignored. Experience with 3 cases of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is reported. Two cases were caused by inappropriate use of metformin in the presence of renal, cardiac and hepatic failure and 1 case followed an intentional overdose. The literature was reviewed on the clinical presentation, prevalence, pathogenesis, prognosis and management of metformin-associated lactic acidosis. This report highlights the importance of proper patient selection, clinical and laboratory monitoring and recommendation on when to stop the drug in ambulatory and hospitalized patients to prevent this unusual but potentially lethal complication.

Motivational interviewing interventions in graduate medical education: a systematic review of the evidence.

BACKGROUND: Motivational interviewing (MI) is a patient-centered method of behavior change counseling. It has shown promise in enabling patients to identify and improve problem health behaviors. Incorporating MI education into residency training may be beneficial. OBJECTIVE: To review the current evidence regarding the impact of MI education in graduate medical education. RESULTS: Of the 9 studies of MI education in graduate medical education training, most noted favorable outcomes after MI education. Outcomes included improvements in residents' view of MI, MI skill use and competency, and resident satisfaction with MI interventions. Of the 5 studies that looked at residents' views of MI, 3 found improvements in resident assessments of the importance of and confidence in using MI. Of the 4 studies of MI skills, 3 reported improvements in residents' use of and competency in the MI skill. The quality of MI education in the graduate medical education literature is limited by overreliance on preintervention and postintervention analysis as a study design, the variable intensity of educational interventions, and limited use of validated assessment tools and quantitative outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS: Review of the literature shows that MI education can be successfully implemented within the residency education environment. The intensity of MI interventions, coupled with experiential learning and feedback, correlated with favorable outcomes in terms of resident use of MI skills and resident satisfaction. Further study is needed to determine which MI skills are most effectively taught to residents, the impact of MI training on resident behavior in clinical settings, and the impact on clinical outcomes.

Tiotropium in the treatment of patients with asthma.

BACKGROUND: Asthma is a chronic disease with a significant disease burden, and many patients fail to achieve disease control despite recommended medical therapy. Recent evidence suggests that there may be benefits to the use of the long-acting anticholinergic agent tiotropium in patients with asthma. METHODS: We performed a systematic review of the literature to determine the role of tiotropium in management of adult patients with asthma. RESULTS: In six studies, 1773 patients were randomized and 1057 received tiotropium as an intervention. The mean prebronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second was 60.1%. All six studies reported a small but statistically significant improvement in spirometry when using tiotropium as compared with the control. Improvement was reported in patients with both moderate and severe asthma, patients uncontrolled on previous regimens, patients treated with low- to high-dose inhaled corticosteroids regimens, and patients treated with and without long-acting ß-agonist therapy. Five studies evaluated clinical outcomes with tiotropium with variable success rates. Although a large randomized trial demonstrated a reduction in the frequency of severe asthma exacerbation with tiotropium, there is insufficient evidence to support the argument that tiotropium therapy leads to improvements in asthma symptom measures, asthma control days, asthma-related quality-of-life-scores, or rescue inhaler use. CONCLUSIONS: There is strong evidence supporting improvement in spirometry and asthma exacerbations with tiotropium in patients with moderate and severe asthma; therefore, tiotropium may be an effective intervention in patients with asthma.

Perspectives of middle-aged African-American women in the Deep South on antiretroviral therapy adherence.

Despite evidence of stabilization in some areas of the USA, HIV infection in black women is not declining in the Deep South. Using a phenomenological approach to qualitative inquiry, we investigated women's experiences influencing their adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in an urban setting. Inclusion criteria specified black women who had been aware of their HIV status for at least two years and were engaged in HIV outpatient care. Twelve single face-to-face confidential in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted from a sample of predominantly middle-aged women retained in care at an HIV clinic in Atlanta, Georgia. Data were analyzed by two independent reviewers and three themes emerged from the group of women's accounts of their experiences. First, sentinel events led to changes in perspective and motivated women to adhere to HAART. Second, recognition that one had the personal strength necessary to cope with HIV fostered adherence. Finally, relationships with healthcare providers especially trust issues surrounding this relationship, impacted adherence both positively and negatively. These findings suggest that HAART adherence is a complex issue among middle-aged urban black women with HIV in the Deep South. Providers caring for this patient population should recognize that sentinel events, personal strength, and positive healthcare relationships are opportunities to improve adherence.

A difficult case to swallow: herpes esophagitis after epidural steroid injection.

Herpes esophagitis due to infection with herpes simplex virus typically occurs in immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, malignancy, and those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy. Albeit rare, herpes esophagitis can occur in immunocompetent patients as a primary infection. We present a case of herpes esophagitis after corticosteroid treatment for back pain including epidural steroid injections. Corticosteroids, especially local injections, are a common treatment for chronic back pain, but they are not without risk. Epidural steroid injections can have systemic effects, which may go unrecognized and underappreciated. Although local infections have been reported after administering these injections, systemic immune suppression may allow for unexpected infections such as herpes esophagitis. Given the widespread use of epidural steroid injections, physicians should reevaluate the potential for harm when considering this treatment.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) after combination chemotherapy for lymphoma.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a serious neurologic disorder marked by acute neurologic symptoms and classic neuroimaging lesions. It occurs in the setting of certain medications and predisposing clinical conditions. We present a case of PRES in a patient with mantle cell lymphoma treated with systemic and intrathecal chemotherapy. The literature suggests a propensity for PRES to arise from the combination of malignancy, intensive induction chemotherapy, and intrathecal administration. PRES is an uncommon and underappreciated complication of certain chemotherapy regimens. The risk of PRES in this setting needs to be considered in managing patients with hematologic malignancies.