No evidence for infants' contingency detection as a precursor of toddlers' self-recognition.

The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between infants' contingency preference and detection in the first year of life and toddlers' mirror and video self-recognition in the second and third year of life in a longitudinal study (N = 113). Six- and 9-month-olds' preference for a noncontingent over a perfect contingent view (contingency preference) and their differentiation between the two views - indicated by longer looking times to either view - (contingency detection) were assessed in two contingency tasks. A mirror-face-recognition task and a mirror-leg-recognition task were conducted at 18 months. A video-face-recognition task and a mirror-leg-recognition task were conducted at 26 months. Results revealed no predictive relationships between infants' contingency preference and detection in the first year of life and their ability to recognize themselves in a mirror or on a video monitor in the second and third year of life. This finding supports the notion that self-recognition emerges independently from the experience of contingencies (Bischof-Köhler, 1991, 2012). Thus, a representation of the self seems to rely on more than a specific developmental pathway leading from contingency preference and detection to self-recognition.

Dropout in looking time studies: The role of infants' temperament and cognitive developmental status.

Dropout of infants in looking time studies sometimes occurs at high rates, raising concerns that the representativeness of the final sample might be reduced in comparison to the originally obtained sample. The current study investigated which infant characteristics play a role in dropout. Infants were presented with a preferential looking task at 6 and 9 months of age. At 9 months of age, an additional habituation task and a subsequent novelty preference task were conducted. In addition, temperament was assessed via the Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised (IBQ-R, Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003), and cognitive developmental status was assessed via the Cognitive Scale of the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III, Bayley, 2006). Dropout was positively related to the IBQ-R temperament scales Distress to Limitations and Approach, and negatively related to the scales Falling Reactivity and Cuddliness. The representativeness of the final sample regarding situation-specific temperament dimensions is affected by dropout. Dropout was not related to cognitive developmental status as measured via the BSID-III, habituation speed and novelty preference. Dropout at 6 months of age was associated with dropout at 9 months of age. We concluded that in looking time studies, the representativeness of the final sample regarding performance-relevant temperament dimensions or cognitive developmental status is not affected by dropout.

Six-month-old infants' interaction difficulties are mirrored in their preference for perfect contingencies.

During the first months of life, infants switch from a preference for perfect contingent feedback to a preference for less-than-perfect contingent feedback of their own movements. This is an indicator of increasing social interest since others provide less-than-perfect contingent feedback whereas the self provides perfect contingent feedback. We presented 117 6-month-olds with real-time and delayed video feedback of self-performed leg movements and asked parents about difficulties in various socioemotional domains. It was hypothesized that the more infants prefer real-time and therefore perfect contingent feedback over 7 s delayed and therefore perceived noncontingent feedback, the more difficulties parents will report in interaction and communication with their child. Preference for real-time feedback was related to difficulties in interaction, but not to difficulties in communication. Implications of this finding for infants' socioemotional development and health are discussed.