Model membrane approaches to determine the role of calcium for the antimicrobial activity of friulimicin.

Friulimicin is a cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic, currently in clinical development, that possesses excellent activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including multiresistant strains. A recent study on the mode of action of friulimicin reported on the interference with bacterial cell wall biosynthesis via a calcium-dependent complexing of the bactoprenol phosphate carrier C55-P. The calcium dependency of this non-common targeted activity remains to be elucidated. In the present model membrane approach, the role of calcium for friulimicin targeting to C55-P was investigated by biosensor-based detection of binding affinities. The findings were supplemented by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Comparing the calcium salt of friulimicin with the calcium-free peptide, calcium appeared to be essential for friulimicin interaction with DOPC model membranes. The binding affinity was even higher in the presence of 0.1 mol% C55-P (0.21 µM vs. 1.22 µM), confirming the targeted mode of action. Binding experiments with supplemented calcium salts suggest (i) the phosphate group as the essential moiety of C55-P, referring to a bridging function of calcium between the negatively charged friulimicin and C55-P, and (ii) a structural effect of calcium shifting the peptide into a suitable binding conformation (CD spectra). AFM images confirmed that calcium has no, or only a minor, effect on the aggregate formation of friulimicin. These data shed new light on the mechanisms of antibacterial activity of friulimicin.

Analysis of membrane interactions of antibiotic peptides using ITC and biosensor measurements.

The interaction of the lantibiotic gallidermin and the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin with bacterial membranes was simulated using mass sensitive biosensors and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). Both peptides interfere with cell wall biosynthesis by targeting the cell wall precursor lipid II, but differ clearly in their antibiotic activity against individual bacterial strains. We determined the binding affinities of vancomycin and gallidermin to model membranes±lipid II in detail. Both peptides bind to DOPC/lipid II membranes with high affinity (K(D) 0.30 µM and 0.27 µM). Gallidermin displayed also strong affinity to pure DOPC membranes (0.53 µM) an effect that was supported by ITC measurements. A surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor allowed measurements in the picomolar concentration range and revealed that gallidermin targets lipid II at an equimolar ratio and simultaneously inserts into the bilayer. These results indicate that gallidermin, in contrast to vancomycin, combines cell wall inhibition and interference with the bacterial membrane integrity for potent antimicrobial activity.

Thermodynamics of melittin binding to lipid bilayers. Aggregation and pore formation.

Lipid membranes act as catalysts for protein folding. Both alpha-helical and beta-sheet structures can be induced by the interaction of peptides or proteins with lipid surfaces. Melittin, the main component of bee venom, is a particularly well-studied example for the membrane-induced random coil-to-alpha-helix transition. Melittin in water adopts essentially a random coil conformation. The cationic amphipathic molecule has a high affinity for neutral and anionic lipid membranes and exhibits approximately 50-65% alpha-helix conformation in the membrane-bound state. At higher melittin concentrations, the peptide forms aggregates or pores in the membrane. In spite of the long-standing interest in melittin-lipid interactions, no systematic thermodynamic study is available. This is probably caused by the complexity of the binding process. Melittin binding to lipid vesicles is fast and occurs within milliseconds, but the binding process involves at least four steps, namely, (i) the electrostatic attraction of the cationic peptide to an anionic membrane surface, (ii) the hydrophobic insertion into the lipid membrane, (iii) the conformational change from random coil to alpha-helix, and (iv) peptide aggregation in the lipid phase. We have combined microelectrophoresis (measurement of the zeta potential), isothermal titration calorimetry, and circular dichroism spectroscopy to provide a thermodynamic analysis of the individual binding steps. We have compared melittin with a synthetic analogue, [D]-V(5,8),I(17),K(21)-melittin, for which alpha-helix formation is suppressed and replaced by beta-structure formation. The comparison reveals that the thermodynamic parameters for the membrane-induced alpha-helix formation of melittin are identical to those observed earlier for other peptides with an enthalpy h(helix) of -0.7 kcal/mol and a free energy g(helix) of -0.2 kcal/mol per peptide residue. These thermodynamic parameters hence appear to be of general validity for lipid-induced membrane folding. As g(helix) is negative, it further follows that helix formation leads to an enhanced membrane binding for the peptides or proteins involved. In this study, melittin binds by approximately 2 orders of magnitude better to the lipid membrane than [D]-V(5,8),I(17),K(21)-melittin which cannot form an alpha-helix. We also found conditions under which the isothermal titration experiment reports only the aggregation process. Melittin aggregation is an entropy-driven process with an endothermic heat of reaction (DeltaH(agg)) of approximately 2 kcal/mol and an aggregation constant of 20-40 M(-1).

Melittin interaction with sulfated cell surface sugars.

Melittin is a 26-residue cationic peptide with cytolytic and antimicrobial properties. Studies on the action mechanism of melittin have focused almost exclusively on the membrane-perturbing properties of this peptide, investigating in detail the melittin-lipid interaction. Here, we report physical-chemical studies on an alternative mechanism by which melittin could interact with the cell membrane. As the outer surface of many cells is decorated with anionic (sulfated) glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), a strong Coulombic interaction between the two oppositely charged molecules can be envisaged. Indeed, the present study using isothermal titration calorimetry reveals a high affinity of melittin for several GAGs, that is, heparan sulfate (HS), dermatan sulfate, and heparin. The microscopic binding constant of melittin for HS is 2.4 x 10 (5) M (-1), the reaction enthalpy is Delta H melittin (0) = -1.50 kcal/mol, and the peptide-to-HS stoichiometry is approximately 11 at 10 mM Tris, 100 mM NaCl at pH 7.4 and 28 degrees C. Delta H melittin (0) is characterized by a molar heat capacity of Delta C P (0) = -227 cal mol (-1) K (-1). The large negative heat capacity change indicates that hydrophobic interactions must also be involved in the binding of melittin to HS. Circular dichroism spectroscopy demonstrates that the binding of the peptide to HS induces a conformational change to a predominantly alpha-helical structure. A model for the melittin-HS complex is presented. Melittin binding was compared with that of magainin 2 and nisin Z to HS. Magainin 2 is known for its antimicrobial properties, but it does not cause lysis of the eukaryotic cells. Nisin Z shows activity against various Gram-positive bacteria. Isothermal titration calorimetry demonstrates that magainin 2 and nisin Z do not bind to HS (5-50 degrees C, 10 mM Tris, and 100 mM NaCl at pH 7.4).