Proteomic and functional analysis of proline dehydrogenase 1 link proline catabolism to mitochondrial electron transport in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Proline accumulates in many plant species in response to environmental stresses. Upon relief from stress, proline is rapidly oxidized in mitochondria by proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) and then by pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH). Two ProDH genes have been identified in the genome of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana To gain a better understanding of ProDH1 functions in mitochondria, proteomic analysis was performed. ProDH1 polypeptides were identified in Arabidopsis mitochondria by immunoblotting gels after 2D blue native (BN)-SDS/PAGE, probing them with an anti-ProDH antibody and analysing protein spots by MS. The 2D gels showed that ProDH1 forms part of a low-molecular-mass (70-140 kDa) complex in the mitochondrial membrane. To evaluate the contribution of each isoform to proline oxidation, mitochondria were isolated from wild-type (WT) and prodh1, prodh2, prodh1prodh2 and p5cdh mutants. ProDH activity was high for genotypes in which ProDH, most likely ProDH1, was strongly induced by proline. Respiratory measurements indicate that ProDH1 has a role in oxidizing excess proline and transferring electrons to the respiratory chain.

The life of plant mitochondrial complex I.

The mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase complex (complex I) of the respiratory chain has several remarkable features in plants: (i) particularly many of its subunits are encoded by the mitochondrial genome, (ii) its mitochondrial transcripts undergo extensive maturation processes (e.g. RNA editing, trans-splicing), (iii) its assembly follows unique routes, (iv) it includes an additional functional domain which contains carbonic anhydrases and (v) it is, indirectly, involved in photosynthesis. Comprising about 50 distinct protein subunits, complex I of plants is very large. However, an even larger number of proteins are required to synthesize these subunits and assemble the enzyme complex. This review aims to follow the complete "life cycle" of plant complex I from various molecular perspectives. We provide arguments that complex I represents an ideal model system for studying the interplay of respiration and photosynthesis, the cooperation of mitochondria and the nucleus during organelle biogenesis and the evolution of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation system.

Involvement of the Azotobacter vinelandii rhodanese-like protein RhdA in the glutathione regeneration pathway.

The phenotypic features of the Azotobacter vinelandii RhdA mutant MV474 (in which the rhdA gene was deleted) indicated that defects in antioxidant systems in this organism were related to the expression of the tandem-domain rhodanese RhdA. In this work, further insights on the effects of the oxidative imbalance generated by the absence of RhdA (e.g. increased levels of lipid hydroperoxides) are provided. Starting from the evidence that glutathione was depleted in MV474, and using both in silico and in vitro approaches, here we studied the interaction of wild-type RhdA and Cys(230)Ala site-directed RhdA mutant with glutathione species. We found that RhdA was able to bind in vitro reduced glutathione (GSH) and that RhdA-Cys(230) residue was mandatory for the complex formation. RhdA catalyzed glutathione-disulfide formation in the presence of a system generating the glutathione thiyl radical (GS, an oxidized form of GSH), thereby facilitating GSH regeneration. This reaction was negligible when the Cys(230)Ala RhdA mutant was used. The efficiency of RhdA as catalyst in GS-scavenging activity is discussed on the basis of the measured parameters of both interaction with glutathione species and kinetic studies.

L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) forms part of three subcomplexes of mitochondrial complex I in Arabidopsis thaliana.

L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) catalyzes the terminal step of the Smirnoff-Wheeler pathway for vitamin C (l-ascorbate) biosynthesis in plants. A GLDH in gel activity assay was developed to biochemically investigate GLDH localization in plant mitochondria. It previously has been shown that GLDH forms part of an 850-kDa complex that represents a minor form of the respiratory NADH dehydrogenase complex (complex I). Because accumulation of complex I is disturbed in the absence of GLDH, a role of this enzyme in complex I assembly has been proposed. Here we report that GLDH is associated with two further protein complexes. Using native gel electrophoresis procedures in combination with the in gel GLDH activity assay and immunoblotting, two mitochondrial complexes of 470 and 420 kDa were identified. Both complexes are of very low abundance. Protein identifications by mass spectrometry revealed that they include subunits of complex I. Finally, the 850-kDa complex was further investigated and shown to include the complete "peripheral arm" of complex I. GLDH is attached to a membrane domain, which represents a major fragment of the "membrane arm" of complex I. Taken together, our data further support a role of GLDH during complex I formation, which is based on its binding to specific assembly intermediates.

Effects of Clostridium difficile Toxin A on the proteome of colonocytes studied by differential 2D electrophoresis.

Clostridium difficile is a spore-forming anaerobic pathogen, commonly associated with severe diarrhea or life-threatening pseudomembraneous colitis. Its main virulence factors are the single-chain, multi-domain toxin A (TcdA) and B (TcdB). Their glucosyltransferase domain selectively inactivates Rho proteins leading to a reorganization of the cytoskeleton. To study exclusively glucosyltransferase-dependent molecular effects of TcdA, human colonic cells (Caco-2) were treated with recombinant wild type TcdA and the glucosyltransferase deficient variant of the toxin, TcdA(gd) for 24h. Changes in the protein pattern of the colonic cells were investigated by 2-D DIGE and LCMS/MS methodology combined with detailed proteome mapping. gdTcdA did not induce any detectable significant changes in the protein pattern. Comparing TcdA-treated cells with a control group revealed seven spots of higher and two of lower intensity (p<0.05). Three proteins are involved in the assembly of the cytoskeleton (ß-actin, ezrin, and DPYL2) and four are involved in metabolism and/or oxidative stress response (ubiquitin, DHE3, MCCB, FABPL) and two in regulatory processes (FUBP1, AL1A1). These findings correlate well to known effects of TcdA like the reorganization of the cytoskeleton and stress the importance of Rho protein glucosylation for the pathogenic effects of TcdA.

Defining the protein complex proteome of plant mitochondria.

A classical approach, protein separation by two-dimensional blue native/sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, was combined with tandem mass spectrometry and up-to-date computer technology to characterize the mitochondrial "protein complex proteome" of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) in so far unrivaled depth. We further developed the novel GelMap software package to annotate and evaluate two-dimensional blue native/sodium dodecyl sulfate gels. The software allows (1) annotation of proteins according to functional and structural correlations (e.g. subunits of a distinct protein complex), (2) assignment of comprehensive protein identification lists to individual gel spots, and thereby (3) selective display of protein complexes of low abundance. In total, 471 distinct proteins were identified by mass spectrometry, several of which form part of at least 35 different mitochondrial protein complexes. To our knowledge, numerous protein complexes were described for the first time (e.g. complexes including pentatricopeptide repeat proteins involved in nucleic acid metabolism). Discovery of further protein complexes within our data set is open to everybody via the public GelMap portal at www.gelmap.de/arabidopsis_mito.

GelMap-a novel software tool for building and presenting proteome reference maps.

Protein separation by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis is of central importance for proteomics. Upon combination with systematic protein identifications by mass spectrometry, large data sets are routinely generated in several proteome laboratories which can be used as "reference maps" for future analyses of analogous biochemical fractions. Here we present GelMap, a novel software tool for the building presentation and evaluation of proteomic reference maps. Variable frames are introduced in order to group proteins into functional categories on three levels or into categories according to differential abundance during comparative proteome analyses. The software is easy to handle as it only requires uploading two digital files to a web site. An additional file including detailed information on all proteins can be combined with the primary map. Two different gel-based projects are presented to illustrate the capacity of GelMap for proteome annotation and evaluation.

Low-SDS Blue native PAGE.

SDS normally is strictly avoided during Blue native (BN) PAGE because it leads to disassembly of protein complexes and unfolding of proteins. Here, we report a modified BN-PAGE procedure, which is based on low-SDS treatment of biological samples prior to native gel electrophoresis. Using mitochondrial OXPHOS complexes from Arabidopsis as a model system, low SDS concentrations are shown to partially dissect protein complexes in a very defined and reproducible way. If combined with 2-D BN/SDS-PAGE, generated subcomplexes and their subunits can be systematically investigated, allowing insights into the internal architecture of protein complexes. Furthermore, a 3-D BN/low-SDS BN/SDS-PAGE system is introduced to facilitate structural analysis of individual protein complexes without their previous purification.

Proteomic approach to characterize mitochondrial complex I from plants.

Mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase complex (complex I) is by far the largest protein complex of the respiratory chain. It is best characterized for bovine mitochondria and known to consist of 45 different subunits in this species. Proteomic analyses recently allowed for the first time to systematically explore complex I from plants. The enzyme is especially large and includes numerous extra subunits. Upon subunit separation by various gel electrophoresis procedures and protein identifications by mass spectrometry, overall 47 distinct types of proteins were found to form part of Arabidopsis complex I. An additional subunit, ND4L, is present but could not be detected by the procedures employed due to its extreme biochemical properties. Seven of the 48 subunits occur in pairs of isoforms, six of which were experimentally proven. Fifteen subunits of complex I from Arabidopsis are specific for plants. Some of these resemble enzymes of known functions, e.g. carbonic anhydrases and l-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH), which catalyzes the last step of ascorbate biosynthesis. This article aims to review proteomic data on the protein composition of complex I in plants. Furthermore, a proteomic re-evaluation on its protein constituents is presented.

Internal architecture of mitochondrial complex I from Arabidopsis thaliana.

The NADH dehydrogenase complex (complex I) of the respiratory chain has unique features in plants. It is the main entrance site for electrons into the respiratory electron transfer chain, has a role in maintaining the redox balance of the entire plant cell and additionally comprises enzymatic side activities essential for other metabolic pathways. Here, we present a proteomic investigation to elucidate its internal structure. Arabidopsis thaliana complex I was purified by a gentle biochemical procedure that includes a cytochrome c-mediated depletion of other respiratory protein complexes. To examine its internal subunit arrangement, isolated complex I was dissected into subcomplexes. Controlled disassembly of the holo complex (1000 kD) by low-concentration SDS treatment produced 10 subcomplexes of 550, 450, 370, 270, 240, 210, 160, 140, 140, and 85 kD. Systematic analyses of subunit composition by mass spectrometry gave insights into subunit arrangement within complex I. Overall, Arabidopsis complex I includes at least 49 subunits, 17 of which are unique to plants. Subunits form subcomplexes analogous to the known functional modules of complex I from heterotrophic eukaryotes (the so-called N-, Q-, and P-modules), but also additional modules, most notably an 85-kD domain including gamma-type carbonic anhydrases. Based on topological information for many of its subunits, we present a model of the internal architecture of plant complex I.

Supramolecular structure of the OXPHOS system in highly thermogenic tissue of Arum maculatum.

The protein complexes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain associate in defined ways forming supramolecular structures called respiratory supercomplexes or respirasomes. In plants, additional oxidoreductases participate in respiratory electron transport, e.g. the so-called "alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases" or an extra terminal oxidase called "alternative oxidase" (AOX). These additional enzymes were previously reported not to form part of respiratory supercomplexes. However, formation of respiratory supercomplexes might indirectly affect "alternative respiration" because electrons can be channeled within the supercomplexes which reduces access of the alternative enzymes towards their electron donating substrates. Here we report an investigation on the supramolecular organization of the respiratory chain in thermogenic Arum maculatum appendix mitochondria, which are known to have a highly active AOX for heat production. Investigations based on mild membrane solubilization by digitonin and protein separation by blue native PAGE revealed a very special organization of the respiratory chain in A. maculatum, which strikingly differs to the one described for the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana: (i) complex I is not present in monomeric form but exclusively forms part of a I + III(2) supercomplex, (ii) the III(2) + IV and I + III(2) + IV supercomplexes are detectable but of low abundance, (iii) complex II has fewer subunits than in A. thaliana, and (iv) complex IV is mainly present as a monomer in a larger form termed "complex IVa". Since thermogenic tissue of A. maculatum at the same time has high AOX and I + III(2) supercomplex abundance and activity, negative regulation of the alternative oxidase by supercomplex formation seems not to occur. Functional implications are discussed.

Carbonic anhydrase subunits form a matrix-exposed domain attached to the membrane arm of mitochondrial complex I in plants.

Complex I of Arabidopsis includes five structurally related subunits representing gamma-type carbonic anhydrases termed CA1, CA2, CA3, CAL1, and CAL2. The position of these subunits within complex I was investigated. Direct analysis of isolated subcomplexes of complex I by liquid chromatography linked to tandem mass spectrometry allowed the assignment of the CA subunits to the membrane arm of complex I. Carbonate extraction experiments revealed that CA2 is an integral membrane protein that is protected upon protease treatment of isolated mitoplasts, indicating a location on the matrix-exposed side of the complex. A structural characterization by single particle electron microscopy of complex I from the green alga Polytomella and a previous analysis from Arabidopsis indicate a plant-specific spherical extra-domain of about 60 A in diameter, which is attached to the central part of the membrane arm of complex I on its matrix face. This spherical domain is proposed to contain a heterotrimer of three CA subunits, which are anchored with their C termini to the hydrophobic arm of complex I. Functional implications of the complex I-integrated CA subunits are discussed.