Black perithecial pigmentation in Fusarium species is due to the accumulation of 5-deoxybostrycoidin-based melanin.

Biosynthesis of the black perithecial pigment in the filamentous fungus Fusarium graminearum is dependent on the polyketide synthase PGL1 (oPKS3). A seven-membered PGL1 gene cluster was identified by over-expression of the cluster specific transcription factor pglR. Targeted gene replacement showed that PGL1, pglJ, pglM and pglV were essential for the production of the perithecial pigment. Over-expression of PGL1 resulted in the production of 6-O-demethyl-5-deoxybostrycoidin (1), 5-deoxybostrycoidin (2), and three novel compounds 5-deoxybostrycoidin anthrone (3), 6-O-demethyl-5-deoxybostrycoidin anthrone (4) and purpurfusarin (5). The novel dimeric bostrycoidin purpurfusarin (5) was found to inhibit the growth of Candida albicans with an IC50 of 8.0 +/- 1.9 µM. The results show that Fusarium species with black perithecia have a previously undescribed form of 5-deoxybostrycoidin based melanin in their fruiting bodies.

Combining UHPLC-High Resolution MS and Feeding of Stable Isotope Labeled Polyketide Intermediates for Linking Precursors to End Products.

We present the results from stable isotope labeled precursor feeding studies combined with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry for the identification of labeled polyketide (PK) end-products. Feeding experiments were performed with (13)C8-6-methylsalicylic acid (6-MSA) and (13)C14-YWA1, both produced in-house, as well as commercial (13)C7-benzoic acid and (2)H7-cinnamic acid, in species of Fusarium, Byssochlamys, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. Incorporation of 6-MSA into terreic acid or patulin was not observed in any of six evaluated species covering three genera, because the 6-MSA was shunted into (2Z,4E)-2-methyl-2,4-hexadienedioic acid. This indicates that patulin and terreic acid may be produced in a closed compartment of the cell and that (2Z,4E)-2-methyl-2,4-hexadienedioic acid is a detoxification product toward terreic acid and patulin. In Fusarium spp., YWA1 was shown to be incorporated into aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, and antibiotic Y. In A. niger, benzoic acid was shown to be incorporated into asperrubrol. Incorporation levels of 0.7-20% into the end-products were detected in wild-type strains. Thus, stable isotope labeling is a promising technique for investigation of polyketide biosynthesis and possible compartmentalization of toxic metabolites.

Induced sclerotium formation exposes new bioactive metabolites from Aspergillus sclerotiicarbonarius.

Sclerotia are known to be fungal survival structures, and induction of sclerotia may prompt production of otherwise undiscovered metabolites. Aspergillus sclerotiicarbonarius (IBT 28362) was investigated under sclerotium producing conditions, which revealed a highly altered metabolic profile. Four new compounds were isolated from cultivation under sclerotium formation conditions and their structures elucidated using different analytical techniques (HRMS, UV, 1D and 2D NMR). This included sclerolizine, an alkylated and oxidized pyrrolizine, the new emindole analog emindole SC and two new carbonarins; carbonarins I and J. We have identified the three latter as true sclerotial metabolites. All metabolites were tested for antifungal and antiinsectan activity, and sclerolizine and carbonarin I displayed antifungal activity against Candida albicans, while all four showed antiinsectan activity. These results demonstrate induction of sclerotia as an alternative way of triggering otherwise silent biosynthetic pathways in filamentous fungi for the discovery of novel bioactive secondary metabolites.

Characterization of four new antifungal yanuthones from Aspergillus niger.

Four new yanuthone analogs (1-4) were isolated from the filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated on the basis of UHPLC-DAD-HRMS data and one-dimensional and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. Labeling studies with (13)C8-6-methylsalicylic acid identified three class I yanuthones originating from the polyketide 6-methylsalicylic acid (yanuthone K, L and M (1-3)) and a class II yanuthone, which was named yanuthone X2 (4). The four new compounds were tested toward the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans and all displayed antifungal activity. Yanuthone X2 represents the first example of a bioactive class II yanuthone, demonstrating the pharmaceutical potential of this class.

Molecular and chemical characterization of the biosynthesis of the 6-MSA-derived meroterpenoid yanuthone D in Aspergillus niger.

Secondary metabolites in filamentous fungi constitute a rich source of bioactive molecules. We have deduced the genetic and biosynthetic pathway of the antibiotic yanuthone D from Aspergillus niger. Our analyses show that yanuthone D is a meroterpenoid derived from the polyketide 6-methylsalicylic acid (6-MSA). Yanuthone D formation depends on a cluster composed of ten genes including yanA and yanI, which encode a 6-MSA polyketide synthase and a previously undescribed O-mevalon transferase, respectively. In addition, several branching points in the pathway were discovered, revealing five yanuthones (F, G, H, I, and J). Furthermore, we have identified another compound (yanuthone X1) that defines a class of yanuthones that depend on several enzymatic activities encoded by genes in the yan cluster but that are not derived from 6-MSA.

Alcohol-based quorum sensing plays a role in adhesion and sliding motility of the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii.

The yeast Debaryomyces hansenii was investigated for its production of alcohol-based quorum sensing (QS) molecules including the aromatic alcohols phenylethanol, tyrosol, tryptophol and the aliphatic alcohol farnesol. Debaryomyces hansenii produced phenylethanol and tyrosol, which were primarily detected from the end of exponential phase indicating that they are potential QS molecules in D. hansenii as previously shown for other yeast species. Yields of phenylethanol and tyrosol produced by D. hansenii were, however, lower than those produced by Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and varied with growth conditions such as the availability of aromatic amino acids, ammonium sulphate, NaCl, pH and temperature. Tryptophol was only produced in the presence of tryptophane, whereas farnesol in general was not detectable. Especially, the type strain of D. hansenii (CBS767) had good adhesion and sliding motility abilities, which seemed to be related to a higher hydrophobicity of the cell surface of D. hansenii (CBS767) rather than the ability to form pseudomycelium. Addition of phenylethanol, tyrosol, tryptophol and farnesol was found to influence both adhesion and sliding motility of D. hansenii.