Disproportionate infection, hospitalisation and death from COVID-19 in ethnic minority groups and Indigenous Peoples: an application of the Priority Public Health Conditions analytical framework.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in disproportionate consequences for ethnic minority groups and Indigenous Peoples. We present an application of the Priority Public Health Conditions (PPHC) framework from the World Health Organisation (WHO), to explicitly address COVID-19 and other respiratory viruses of pandemic potential. This application is supported by evidence that ethnic minority groups were more likely to be infected, implying differential exposure (PPHC level two), be more vulnerable to severe disease once infected (PPHC level three) and have poorer health outcomes following infection (PPHC level four). These inequities are driven by various interconnected dimensions of racism, that compounds with socioeconomic context and position (PPHC level one). We show that, for respiratory viruses, it is important to stratify levels of the PPHC framework by infection status and by societal, community, and individual factors to develop optimal interventions to reduce inequity from COVID-19 and future infectious diseases outbreaks.

Towards leaving no one behind in North Macedonia: a mixed methods assessment of barriers to effective coverage with health services.

BACKGROUND: The Government of North Macedonia's Primary Health Care reform is committed to leaving no one behind on the path to Universal health Coverage (UHC). During mid-2022 to March 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) collaborated with the Government and other national stakeholders for an assessment of barriers to effective coverage with health services experienced by adult citizens, with a specific focus on rural areas and subpopulations in situations of vulnerability. METHODS: This study constituted the piloting of a draft forthcoming WHO handbook on assessing barriers for health services, grounded in the Tanahashi framework for effective coverage with health services. In North Macedonia, the convergent parallel mixed methods study involved four sources. These were: a nationally representative Computer Assisted Telephone Interview Survey (1,139 respondents); 24 key informant interviews with representatives from government, professional associations, non-governmental and civil society organizations, and development partners; 12 focus groups in four regions with adults from vulnerable/high risk groups in rural areas and small urban settlements and an additional focus group with persons with disabilities; and a literature review. Instrument design was underpinned by the Tanahashi framework, which also orientated data triangulation and deductive analysis. The research team synergistically incorporated emerging themes in an inductive way. A key component of the assessment was participatory design of the study protocol with inputs from national stakeholders as well as participatory deliberation of the results and the ways forward. RESULTS: Despite considerable progress towards UHC in North Macedonia, the assessment elucidated remaining challenges. These included: insufficient numbers of health workers, in general and particularly in the more disadvantaged regions of the country; inadequate number of outpatient medicines covered by health insurance; distance and transportation obstacles, including indirect travel costs, particularly in rural areas; adverse gender norms and relations for both women and men inhibiting timely treatment seeking; perceived discrimination by providers on multiple grounds; bottlenecks including waiting times to get appointments for specialist referrals; and lack of patient adherence, due several factors including costs of medicines and health products. CONCLUSIONS: The outputs from this study of barriers to effective coverage with health services for adult citizens of North Macedonia are feeding into the ongoing Primary Health Care reform, and provide evidence for equity-related actions in the forthcoming National Development Strategy.

COVID-19 preparedness and response in rural and remote areas: A scoping review.

This scoping review used the Arksey and O'Malley approach to explore COVID-19 preparedness and response in rural and remote areas to identify lessons to inform future health preparedness and response planning. A search of scientific and grey literature for rural COVID-19 preparedness and responses identified 5 668 articles published between 2019 and early 2022. A total of 293 articles were included, of which 160 (54.5%) were from high income countries and 106 (36.2%) from middle income countries. Studies focused mostly on the Maintenance of Essential Health Services (63; 21.5%), Surveillance, epidemiological investigation, contact tracing and adjustment of public health and social measures (60; 20.5%), Coordination and Planning (32; 10.9%); Case Management (30; 10.2%), Social Determinants of Health (29; 10%) and Risk Communication (22; 7.5%). Rural health systems were less prepared and national COVID-19 responses were often not adequately tailored to rural areas. Promising COVID-19 responses involved local leaders and communities, were collaborative and multisectoral, and engaged local cultures. Non-pharmaceutical interventions were applied less, support for access to water and sanitation at scale was weak, and more targeted approaches to the isolation of cases and quarantine of contacts were preferable to blanket lockdowns. Rural pharmacists, community health workers and agricultural extension workers assisted in overcoming shortages of health professionals. Vaccination coverage was hindered by weaker rural health systems. Digital technology enabled better coordination, communication, and access to health services, yet for some was inaccessible. Rural livelihoods and food security were affected through disruptions to local labour markets, farm produce markets and input supply chains. Important lessons include the need for rural proofing national health preparedness and response and optimizing synergies between top-down planning with localised planning and coordination. Equity-oriented rural health systems strengthening and action on rural social determinants is essential to better prepare for and respond to future outbreaks.

Exploring the ideas of young healthcare professionals from selected countries regarding rural proofing.

INTRODUCTION: Globally, most countries struggle to meet the health needs of rural communities. This has resulted in rural areas performing poorly when compared to urban areas in terms of a range of health indicators. There have been few coherent or systematic strategies that target rural communities and address their needs within the rural context. Rural proofing, defined as the systematic application of a rural lens across policies and guidelines to ensure that they speak to these health needs, seeks to address this gap. The healthcare professionals (HCPs) who will be called upon to advocate for and lead the implementation of rural proofing efforts are those currently in training or early career stages. We thus sought to understand the perspectives of young HCPs regarding the concept of rural proofing. METHODS: The study adopted an interpretivist paradigm. Data were collected using semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Selected HCPs who are in leadership in Rural Seeds, a movement for young HCPs, participated in the study. FGDs in the form of Rural Cafés were led by some Rural Seeds leaders who participated in the interviews and who showed interest in organising the discussions. Eleven exploratory interviews and six FGDs were conducted using Zoom. HCPs were from Australia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Asia. Interviews and FGDs were conducted in English, recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was then undertaken. RESULTS: Participants perceived the state of rural healthcare globally to be problematic. Access to care was seen as the most significant issue in rural health care, associated with the challenges of lack of equity in access, and limited funding and support for healthcare professionals and their career pathways. Despite varying understanding of the concept, rural proofing was seen to be of great value in improving rural health care. A number of ideas for applying rural proofing, with examples, were proposed from their perspectives as frontline healthcare providers. They particularly recognised the importance of addressing the local needs of rural communities and the needs of present and future HCPs. Implementation of rural proofing was seen to require the involvement of key stakeholders from a range of sectors at multiple levels. CONCLUSION: Given the state of rural health, young rural HCPs suggest that rural proofing strategies are needed as they have the potential to bring about equity in the delivery of health care in rural and remote communities. These strategies will assist in creating a more positive future for rural health care worldwide and motivate young HCPs to become involved in rural health care, as well as to increase their motivation to take an interest in health policy development. These strategies need to be applied at multiple levels, from national government to local contexts. It is also seen to be critically important to involve multiple levels of stakeholders, from politicians to healthcare providers and community members, in the process of rural proofing.

Using mixed methods to understand and tackle barriers to accessing health services.

This report describes the experience and lessons learnt from designing and implementing a combined quantitative and qualitative method to assess barriers to accessing health services. This approach was developed to study barriers to access in five dimensions: availability; geographical, financial, and organizational accessibility; acceptability; contact; and effective coverage. The study design was used in six countries in the World Health Organization Region of the Americas. The findings highlight the importance of having a well defined analysis framework and the benefits of adopting a mixed-methods approach. Using existing data and contextualizing findings according to specific population groups and geographical areas were essential for relevance and utilization of the study outcomes. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of using mixed methods to understand the complexity of access problems faced by different subpopulations. By involving decision-makers from the beginning and allowing flexibility for sustained discussions, the analysis and findings had an impact. The engagement of health authorities and key stakeholders facilitated the use of the findings for collaborative identification of policy options to eliminate access barriers. Lessons learnt from the study emphasized the need for active participation of decision-makers, flexibility in the process, and sustained opportunities for discussion to ensure impact. Giving consideration to local priorities and adapting the methods accordingly were important for the relevance and use of the findings. Future efforts could consider incorporating mixed methods into national and local monitoring and evaluation systems.

En este informe se describen la experiencia y las enseñanzas extraídas a partir del diseño y la aplicación de un método que combina elementos cuantitativos y cualitativos para evaluar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso a los servicios de salud. Este enfoque se ideó para poder analizar estos obstáculos mediante cinco dimensiones: disponibilidad; accesibilidad geográfica, económica y organizativa; aceptabilidad; contacto; y cobertura efectiva. El diseño del estudio se utilizó en seis países de la Región de las Américas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los resultados pusieron de relieve la importancia de contar con un marco de análisis bien definido, así como las ventajas de adoptar un enfoque basado en métodos mixtos. El uso de los datos existentes y la contextualización de los resultados en función de grupos poblacionales y áreas geográficas específicos fueron aspectos esenciales para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados del estudio. Los resultados demuestran la viabilidad del uso de métodos mixtos para comprender la complejidad de los problemas de acceso que afrontan los diferentes subgrupos poblacionales. La involucración desde un primer momento de las personas responsables de la toma de decisiones y la flexibilidad para llevar a cabo deliberaciones prolongadas propiciaron una mayor repercusión del análisis y sus conclusiones. La participación de las autoridades de salud y de las principales partes interesadas favoreció la aplicación de los resultados para determinar, en un marco de colaboración, las opciones políticas necesarias para eliminar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso. Las enseñanzas extraídas de este estudio subrayan la necesidad de una participación activa de las autoridades responsables de la toma de decisiones, de que el proceso sea flexible y de la existencia de oportunidades permanentes de deliberación para asegurar su eficacia. El hecho de tener en cuenta las prioridades locales y adaptar los métodos en consecuencia fue un elemento importante para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados. Las iniciativas futuras podrían considerar la incorporación de métodos mixtos a los sistemas nacionales y locales de seguimiento y evaluación.

Este relatório descreve a experiência e as lições aprendidas com o delineamento e implementação de um método combinado (quantitativo e qualitativo) para avaliar barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde. Essa abordagem foi desenvolvida para estudar barreiras de acesso em cinco dimensões: disponibilidade; acessibilidade geográfica, financeira e organizacional; aceitabilidade; contato; e cobertura efetiva. O desenho do estudo foi usado em seis países da Região das Américas da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Os achados destacam a importância de ter uma estrutura de análise bem definida e os benefícios de adotar uma abordagem de métodos mistos. O uso de dados existentes e a contextualização dos achados de acordo com grupos populacionais e áreas geográficas específicas foram essenciais para a relevância e a utilização dos resultados do estudo. Os achados demonstram a viabilidade de usar métodos mistos para entender a complexidade dos problemas de acesso enfrentados por diferentes subpopulações. O envolvimento de tomadores de decisão desde o início e a flexibilidade para discussões contínuas permitiram que a análise e os achados tivessem impacto. O envolvimento das autoridades sanitárias e das principais partes interessadas facilitou a utilização dos achados na identificação colaborativa de opções de políticas para eliminar as barreiras de acesso. As lições aprendidas com o estudo enfatizaram a necessidade de participação ativa dos tomadores de decisão, flexibilidade no processo e oportunidades contínuas de discussão para assegurar seu impacto. Foi importante levar em consideração as prioridades locais e adaptar os métodos de acordo com essas prioridades para garantir a relevância e o uso dos achados. Futuros esforços podem considerar a incorporação de métodos mistos em sistemas nacionais e locais de monitoramento e avaliação.

Using mixed methods to understand and tackle barriers to access- ing health services

[ABSTRACT]. This report describes the experience and lessons learnt from designing and implementing a combined quan- titative and qualitative method to assess barriers to accessing health services. This approach was developed to study barriers to access in five dimensions: availability; geographical, financial, and organizational acces- sibility; acceptability; contact; and effective coverage. The study design was used in six countries in the World Health Organization Region of the Americas. The findings highlight the importance of having a well defined analysis framework and the benefits of adopting a mixed-methods approach. Using existing data and contextualizing findings according to specific population groups and geographical areas were essential for relevance and utilization of the study outcomes. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of using mixed methods to understand the complexity of access problems faced by different subpopulations. By involving decision-makers from the beginning and allowing flexibility for sustained discussions, the analysis and find- ings had an impact. The engagement of health authorities and key stakeholders facilitated the use of the findings for collaborative identification of policy options to eliminate access barriers. Lessons learnt from the study emphasized the need for active participation of decision-makers, flexibility in the process, and sustained opportunities for discussion to ensure impact. Giving consideration to local priorities and adapting the methods accordingly were important for the relevance and use of the findings. Future efforts could consider incorporating mixed methods into national and local monitoring and evaluation systems.

[RESUMEN]. En este informe se describen la experiencia y las enseñanzas extraídas a partir del diseño y la aplicación de un método que combina elementos cuantitativos y cualitativos para evaluar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso a los servicios de salud. Este enfoque se ideó para poder analizar estos obstáculos mediante cinco dimensiones: disponibilidad; accesibilidad geográfica, económica y organizativa; aceptabilidad; contacto; y cobertura efectiva. El diseño del estudio se utilizó en seis países de la Región de las Américas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los resultados pusieron de relieve la importancia de contar con un marco de análisis bien definido, así como las ventajas de adoptar un enfoque basado en métodos mixtos. El uso de los datos existentes y la contextualización de los resultados en función de grupos poblacionales y áreas geográficas específicos fueron aspectos esenciales para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados del estudio. Los resultados demuestran la viabilidad del uso de métodos mixtos para comprender la complejidad de los problemas de acceso que afrontan los diferentes subgrupos poblacionales. La involucración desde un primer momento de las personas responsables de la toma de decisiones y la flexibilidad para llevar a cabo deliberaciones prolongadas propiciaron una mayor repercusión del análisis y sus conclusiones. La participación de las autoridades de salud y de las principales partes interesadas favoreció la aplicación de los resultados para determinar, en un marco de colaboración, las opciones políticas necesarias para eliminar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso. Las enseñanzas extraídas de este estudio subrayan la necesidad de una participación activa de las autoridades responsables de la toma de decisiones, de que el proceso sea flexible y de la existencia de oportunidades permanentes de deliberación para asegurar su eficacia. El hecho de tener en cuenta las prioridades locales y adaptar los métodos en consecuencia fue un elemento importante para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados. Las iniciativas futuras podrían considerar la incorporación de métodos mixtos a los sistemas nacionales y locales de seguimiento y evaluación.

[RESUMO]. Este relatório descreve a experiência e as lições aprendidas com o delineamento e implementação de um método combinado (quantitativo e qualitativo) para avaliar barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde. Essa abordagem foi desenvolvida para estudar barreiras de acesso em cinco dimensões: disponibilidade; acessibilidade geográfica, financeira e organizacional; aceitabilidade; contato; e cobertura efetiva. O desenho do estudo foi usado em seis países da Região das Américas da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Os acha- dos destacam a importância de ter uma estrutura de análise bem definida e os benefícios de adotar uma abordagem de métodos mistos. O uso de dados existentes e a contextualização dos achados de acordo com grupos populacionais e áreas geográficas específicas foram essenciais para a relevância e a utilização dos resultados do estudo. Os achados demonstram a viabilidade de usar métodos mistos para entender a complexidade dos problemas de acesso enfrentados por diferentes subpopulações. O envolvimento de tomadores de decisão desde o início e a flexibilidade para discussões contínuas permitiram que a análise e os achados tivessem impacto. O envolvimento das autoridades sanitárias e das principais partes interessa- das facilitou a utilização dos achados na identificação colaborativa de opções de políticas para eliminar as barreiras de acesso. As lições aprendidas com o estudo enfatizaram a necessidade de participação ativa dos tomadores de decisão, flexibilidade no processo e oportunidades contínuas de discussão para assegurar seu impacto. Foi importante levar em consideração as prioridades locais e adaptar os métodos de acordo com essas prioridades para garantir a relevância e o uso dos achados. Futuros esforços podem considerar a incorporação de métodos mistos em sistemas nacionais e locais de monitoramento e avaliação.

Identifying access barriers faced by rural and dispersed communities to better address their needs: implications and lessons learned for rural proofing for health in the Americas and beyond.

INTRODUCTION: Universal access to health services and universal health coverage are needed to achieve good health for all, yet rural communities face a variety of access barriers. As part of an effort to 'rural proof' health systems, it is therefore imperative to identify and act on the factors limiting access to health services by rural and indigenous communities. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the wide range of access barriers faced by rural and remote communities in two countries where barrier assessments were conducted. It also discusses the potential for barrier assessments to contribute evidence for rural proofing of national health policies, strategies, plans and programs. METHODS: The study applied a concurrent triangulation design to collect and analyze data obtained from narrative-style literature reviews, in-depth interviews with local health authorities, and secondary analyses of existing household data on Guyana and Peru. These two countries were selected because they have some of the largest rural and indigenous populations in Latin America and the Caribbean, and have national policies in place for providing free, essential health services for these communities. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected separately, and results were interpreted together. The main objective was to corroborate and cross-validate findings looking for convergence between the separate data analyses. RESULTS: Seven dominant themes were identified across the two countries: use of traditional medicine and practice; decision making, gender, and family power dynamics; ethnicity and trust; knowledge and health literacy; geographic accessibility, health personnel and intercultural skills; and financial accessibility. The findings suggest that the interaction between these barriers may be as important as the singular role played by each factor, thereby highlighting the complex and multifactorial nature of accessing services in rural settings. Issues with limited availability of human resources for health were compounded by inadequate supplies and infrastructure. Financial barriers were often linked to the indirect costs of transport and geographic location, and further exacerbated by reduced socioeconomic status of rural communities, a majority of which are indigenous and have a strong preference for traditional medicines. Importantly, rural and indigenous communities experience considerable non-financial barriers related to issues of acceptability, which requires adaptation of health personnel and health service delivery models to the context-specific needs and realities of each rural community. CONCLUSION: This study presented an approach for data collection and analysis that is both feasible and effective for evaluating access barriers in rural and remote communities. While this study explored access barriers through general health services in two rural settings, the issues identified reflect the structural deficiencies of many health systems. These challenges and singularities require adaptive organizational models for the provision of health services that respond to the specific characteristics of rural and indigenous communities. This study indicates the potential relevance of conducting assessments of barriers to health services as part of a wider approach to rural proofing and supports the notion that a mixed-methods approach, linking secondary analysis of existing relevant national survey data with focused key-informant interview data, may be an effective and efficient way to transform data into the knowledge policymakers need to rural proof health policies.

Rural health frontiers: exploring insights, lessons, and priority actions identified through a global 40-speaker webinar series on rural health equity.

INTRODUCTION: Tackling rural health inequities requires equity-oriented approaches within health systems (eg across human resources, service delivery, information systems, health products, governance, financing) and action at cross-sectoral levels and with communities to address social and environmental determinants. METHODS: During the July 2021 to March 2022 period, more than 40 experts contributed to an 8-part webinar series on rural health equity, sharing experiences, insights and lessons learnt for both systems strengthening and action on determinants. The webinar series was convened by WHO in collaboration with WONCA's Rural Working Party, OECD and agencies in the UN Inequalities Task Team subgroup on rural inequalities. RESULTS: From rural proofing to advancing a One Health approach, to research on barriers to health services, to ensuring an Indigenous health focus and community engagement in medical education, the series covered a range of topics relevant to diminishing rural health inequities. DISCUSSION: The 10-minute presentation will highlight emerging lessons, where more research activity, deliberation in policy and programming domains, and joined up action across stakeholders and sectors have been called for.

Using mixed methods to understand and tackle barriers to accessing health services / Aplicación de métodos mixtos para la determinación y abordaje de los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso a los servicios de salud / Uso de métodos mistos para entender e enfrentar as barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde

ABSTRACT This report describes the experience and lessons learnt from designing and implementing a combined quantitative and qualitative method to assess barriers to accessing health services. This approach was developed to study barriers to access in five dimensions: availability; geographical, financial, and organizational accessibility; acceptability; contact; and effective coverage. The study design was used in six countries in the World Health Organization Region of the Americas. The findings highlight the importance of having a well defined analysis framework and the benefits of adopting a mixed-methods approach. Using existing data and contextualizing findings according to specific population groups and geographical areas were essential for relevance and utilization of the study outcomes. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of using mixed methods to understand the complexity of access problems faced by different subpopulations. By involving decision-makers from the beginning and allowing flexibility for sustained discussions, the analysis and findings had an impact. The engagement of health authorities and key stakeholders facilitated the use of the findings for collaborative identification of policy options to eliminate access barriers. Lessons learnt from the study emphasized the need for active participation of decision-makers, flexibility in the process, and sustained opportunities for discussion to ensure impact. Giving consideration to local priorities and adapting the methods accordingly were important for the relevance and use of the findings. Future efforts could consider incorporating mixed methods into national and local monitoring and evaluation systems.

RESUMEN En este informe se describen la experiencia y las enseñanzas extraídas a partir del diseño y la aplicación de un método que combina elementos cuantitativos y cualitativos para evaluar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso a los servicios de salud. Este enfoque se ideó para poder analizar estos obstáculos mediante cinco dimensiones: disponibilidad; accesibilidad geográfica, económica y organizativa; aceptabilidad; contacto; y cobertura efectiva. El diseño del estudio se utilizó en seis países de la Región de las Américas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los resultados pusieron de relieve la importancia de contar con un marco de análisis bien definido, así como las ventajas de adoptar un enfoque basado en métodos mixtos. El uso de los datos existentes y la contextualización de los resultados en función de grupos poblacionales y áreas geográficas específicos fueron aspectos esenciales para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados del estudio. Los resultados demuestran la viabilidad del uso de métodos mixtos para comprender la complejidad de los problemas de acceso que afrontan los diferentes subgrupos poblacionales. La involucración desde un primer momento de las personas responsables de la toma de decisiones y la flexibilidad para llevar a cabo deliberaciones prolongadas propiciaron una mayor repercusión del análisis y sus conclusiones. La participación de las autoridades de salud y de las principales partes interesadas favoreció la aplicación de los resultados para determinar, en un marco de colaboración, las opciones políticas necesarias para eliminar los obstáculos que dificultan el acceso. Las enseñanzas extraídas de este estudio subrayan la necesidad de una participación activa de las autoridades responsables de la toma de decisiones, de que el proceso sea flexible y de la existencia de oportunidades permanentes de deliberación para asegurar su eficacia. El hecho de tener en cuenta las prioridades locales y adaptar los métodos en consecuencia fue un elemento importante para el interés y la aplicación de los resultados. Las iniciativas futuras podrían considerar la incorporación de métodos mixtos a los sistemas nacionales y locales de seguimiento y evaluación.

RESUMO Este relatório descreve a experiência e as lições aprendidas com o delineamento e implementação de um método combinado (quantitativo e qualitativo) para avaliar barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde. Essa abordagem foi desenvolvida para estudar barreiras de acesso em cinco dimensões: disponibilidade; acessibilidade geográfica, financeira e organizacional; aceitabilidade; contato; e cobertura efetiva. O desenho do estudo foi usado em seis países da Região das Américas da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Os achados destacam a importância de ter uma estrutura de análise bem definida e os benefícios de adotar uma abordagem de métodos mistos. O uso de dados existentes e a contextualização dos achados de acordo com grupos populacionais e áreas geográficas específicas foram essenciais para a relevância e a utilização dos resultados do estudo. Os achados demonstram a viabilidade de usar métodos mistos para entender a complexidade dos problemas de acesso enfrentados por diferentes subpopulações. O envolvimento de tomadores de decisão desde o início e a flexibilidade para discussões contínuas permitiram que a análise e os achados tivessem impacto. O envolvimento das autoridades sanitárias e das principais partes interessadas facilitou a utilização dos achados na identificação colaborativa de opções de políticas para eliminar as barreiras de acesso. As lições aprendidas com o estudo enfatizaram a necessidade de participação ativa dos tomadores de decisão, flexibilidade no processo e oportunidades contínuas de discussão para assegurar seu impacto. Foi importante levar em consideração as prioridades locais e adaptar os métodos de acordo com essas prioridades para garantir a relevância e o uso dos achados. Futuros esforços podem considerar a incorporação de métodos mistos em sistemas nacionais e locais de monitoramento e avaliação.

Primary health care as a platform for addressing racial discrimination to "leave no one behind" and reduce health inequities.

The health inequities faced by populations experiencing racial discrimination, including indigenous peoples and people of African descent, Roma, and other ethnic minorities, are an issue of global concern. Health systems have an important role to play in tackling these health inequities. Health systems based on comprehensive Primary Health Care (PHC) are best placed to tackle health inequities because PHC encompasses a whole-of-society approach to health. PHC includes actions to address the wider social determinants of health, multisectoral policy and action, intercultural and integrated healthcare services, community empowerment, and a focus on addressing health inequities. PHC can also serve as a platform for introducing specific actions to tackle racial discrimination and can act to drive wider societal change for tackling racial and ethnic health inequities.

Exploring the potential for a new measure of socioeconomic deprivation status to monitor health inequality.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring health inequalities is an important task for health research and policy, to uncover who is being left behind - and where - and to inform effective and equitable policies and programmes to tackle existing inequities. The choice of which measure to use to monitor and analyse health inequalities is thereby not trivial. This article explores a new measure of socioeconomic deprivation status (SDS) to monitor health inequalities. METHODS: The SDS measure was constructed using the Alkire-Foster method. It includes eight indicators across two equally weighted dimensions (education and living standards) and specifies a four-level gradient of socioeconomic deprivation at the household-level. We conducted four exercises to examine the value-added of the proposed SDS measure, using Demographic and Health Surveys data. First, we examined the discriminatory power of the new measure when applied to outcomes in four select reproductive, maternal, neonatal, and child health (RMNCH) indicators across six countries: skilled birth attendance, stunting, U5MR, and DTP3 immunisation. Then, we analysed the behaviour and association of the new SDS measure vis-à-vis the DHS Wealth Index, including chi-squared test and Pearson correlation coefficient. Third, we analysed the robustness of the SDS measure results to changes in its structure, using pairwise comparisons and Kendal Tau-b rank correlation. Finally, we illustrated some of the advantageous properties of the new measure, disaggregation and decomposition, on Haitian data. RESULTS: 1) Higher levels of socioeconomic deprivation are generally consistently associated with lower levels of achievements in the RMNCH indicators across countries. 2) 87% of all pairwise rank comparisons across a range of SDS measure structures were robust. 3) SDS and DHS Wealth Index are associated, but with considerable cross-country variation, highlighting their complementarity. 4) Haitian households in rural areas experienced, on average, more severe socioeconomic deprivation as well as lower levels of RMNCH achievement than urban households. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed SDS measure adds analytical possibilities to the health inequality monitoring literature, in line with ethically and conceptually well-founded notions of absolute, multidimensional disadvantage. In addition, it allows for breakdown by its dimensions and components, which may facilitate nuanced analyses of health inequality, its correlates, and determinants.

Assessing Barriers to Effective Coverage of Health Services for Adolescents in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Scoping Review.

PURPOSE: Understanding barriers to health services, as experienced by adolescents, is important to expand effective and equitable coverage; however, there is limited discussion on methods for conducting barrier assessments and translating findings into action. METHODS: We conducted a scoping review of literature published between 2005 and 2019 on barriers to health services for adolescents in low- and middle-income countries. The review was guided by a framework that conceptualized barriers across multiple dimensions of access (availability, geographic accessibility, affordability, and acceptability), utilization, and effective coverage. RESULTS: We identified 339 studies that assessed barriers related to at least one dimension of the operational framework. Acceptability (93%) and availability (88%) of health services were the most frequently studied access dimensions; affordability (45%) and geographic access (32%) were studied less frequently. Less than half (40%) of the studies evaluated utilization, and none of the 339 studies assessed effective coverage. Attention to equity stratifiers (e.g., income, disability) was limited. Topics studied reflected only a subset of the major causes of adolescent death and disability. CONCLUSIONS: Holistic, equity-oriented approaches are needed to better understand barriers across multiple dimensions that together determine whether health services are accessible, used, and effectively meet the needs of different adolescent groups.

Building capacity for health equity analysis in the WHO South-East Asia Region.

"Leaving no one behind" is at the heart of the agenda of the Sustainable Development Goals, requiring that health systems be vigilant to how interventions can be accessed equitably by all, including population subgroups that face exclusion. In the World Health Organization (WHO) South-East Asia Region, inequalities can be found across and within countries but there has been a growing commitment to examining and starting to tackle them. Over the past decade in particular, WHO has been developing an armamentarium of tools to enable analysis of health inequalities and action on health equity. Tools include the Health Equity Assessment Toolkit in built-in database and upload database editions, as well as the Innov8 tool for reorientation of national health programmes. Countries across the region have engaged meaningfully in the development and application of these tools, in many cases aligning them with, or including them as part of, ongoing efforts to examine inequities in population subgroups domestically. This paper reflects on these experiences in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand, where efforts have ranged from workshops to programme reorientation; the creation of assemblies and conferences; and collation of evidence through collaborative research, reviews/synthesis and conferences. This promising start must be maintained and expanded, with greater emphasis on building capacity for interpretation and use of evidence on inequalities in policy-making. This may be further enhanced by the use of innovative mixed methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches to refine and contextualize evidence, with a concomitant shift in attention, developing solutions to redress inequities and anchor health reform within communities. There are many lessons to be learnt in this region, as well as mounting political and popular will for change.

Tools and approaches to operationalize the commitment to equity, gender and human rights: towards leaving no one behind in the Sustainable Development Goals.

The objective of this article is to present specific resources developed by the World Health Organization on equity, gender and human rights in order to support Member States in operationalizing their commitment to leave no one behind in the health Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and other health-related goals and targets. The resources cover: (i) health inequality monitoring; (ii) barrier analysis using mixed methods; (iii) human rights monitoring; (iv) leaving no one behind in national and subnational health sector planning; and (v) equity, gender and human rights in national health programme reviews. Examples of the application of the tools in a range of country contexts are provided for each resource.

Applying the Innov8 approach for reviewing national health programmes to leave no one behind: lessons learnt from Indonesia.

The World Health Organization's Innov8 Approach for Reviewing National Health Programmes to Leave No One Behind is an eight-step process that supports the operationalization of the Sustainable Development Goals' commitment to 'leave no one behind'. In 2014-2015, Innov8 was adapted and applied in Indonesia to review how the national neonatal and maternal health action plans could become more equity-oriented, rights-based and gender-responsive, and better address critical social determinants of health. The process was led by the Indonesian Ministry of Health, with the support of WHO. It involved a wide range of actors and aligned with/fed into the drafting of the maternal newborn health action plan and the implementation planning of the newborn action plan. Key activities included a sensitization meeting, diagnostic checklist, review workshop and in-country work by the review teams. This 'methods forum' article describes this adaptation and application process, the outcomes and lessons learnt. In conjunction with other sources, Innov8 findings and recommendations informed national and sub-national maternal and neonatal action plans and programming to strengthen a 'leave no one behind' approach. As follow-up during 2015-2017, components of the Innov8 methodology were integrated into district-level planning processes for maternal and newborn health, and Innov8 helped generate demand for health inequality monitoring and its use in planning. In Indonesia, Innov8 enhanced national capacity for equity-oriented, rights-based and gender-responsive approaches and addressing critical social determinants of health. Adaptation for the national planning context (e.g. decentralized structure) and linking with health inequality monitoring capacity building were important lessons learnt. The pilot of Innov8 in Indonesia suggests that this approach can help operationalize the SDGs' commitment to leave no one behind, in particular in relation to influencing programming and monitoring and evaluation.

A life-course approach to health: synergy with sustainable development goals.

A life-course approach to health encompasses strategies across individuals' lives that optimize their functional ability (taking into account the interdependence of individual, social, environmental, temporal and intergenerational factors), thereby enabling well-being and the realization of rights. The approach is a perfect fit with efforts to achieve universal health coverage and meet the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Properly applied, a life-course approach can increase the effectiveness of the former and help realize the vision of the latter, especially in ensuring health and well-being for all at all ages. Its implementation requires a shared understanding by individuals and societies of how health is shaped by multiple factors throughout life and across generations. Most studies have focused on noncommunicable disease and ageing populations in high-income countries and on epidemiological, theoretical and clinical issues. The aim of this article is to show how the life-course approach to health can be extended to all age groups, health topics and countries by building on a synthesis of existing scientific evidence, experience in different countries and advances in health strategies and programmes. A conceptual framework for the approach is presented along with implications for implementation in the areas of: (i) policy and investment; (ii) health services and systems; (iii) local, multisectoral and multistakeholder action; and (iv) measurement, monitoring and research. The SDGs provide a unique context for applying a holistic, multisectoral approach to achieving transformative outcomes for people, prosperity and the environment. A life-course approach can reinforce these efforts, particularly given its emphasis on rights and equity.

Une approche sanitaire fondée sur le parcours de vie englobe des stratégies tout au long de la vie des individus qui optimisent leur capacité fonctionnelle (en prenant en compte l'interdépendance de facteurs individuels, sociaux, environnementaux, temporels et intergénérationnels), assurant ainsi le bien-être et l'exercice des droits. Cette approche s'inscrit parfaitement dans les efforts déployés pour parvenir à une couverture sanitaire universelle et atteindre les objectifs de développement durable (ODD). Lorsqu'elle est correctement appliquée, une approche fondée sur le parcours de vie peut accroître l'efficacité de la première et aider à concrétiser l'ambition des seconds, en assurant notamment la santé et le bien-être pour tous à tous les âges. Sa mise en œuvre exige une compréhension commune par les individus et les sociétés de la manière dont la santé est façonnée par de multiples facteurs tout au long de la vie et d'une génération à l'autre. La plupart des études réalisées ont porté sur des maladies non transmissibles et le vieillissement des populations dans les pays à revenu élevé, ainsi que sur des aspects épidémiologiques, théoriques et cliniques. L'objectif de cet article est de montrer que l'approche sanitaire fondée sur le parcours de vie peut être élargie à toutes les tranches d'âge, toutes les questions de santé et tous les pays en s'appuyant sur une synthèse des données scientifiques existantes, les expériences de différents pays et l'avancement des stratégies et programmes en matière de santé. Un cadre conceptuel de l'approche est présenté ainsi que les conséquences de sa mise en œuvre sur: (i) la politique et l'investissement; (ii) les services et systèmes de santé; (iii) les actions locales, multisectorielles et multipartites; et (iv) les mesures, la surveillance et la recherche. Les ODD fournissent un contexte unique pour l'application d'une approche globale et multisectorielle en vue d'obtenir des résultats porteurs de transformation pour les individus, la prospérité et l'environnement. Une approche fondée sur le parcours de vie peut renforcer ces efforts, notamment parce qu'elle met l'accent sur les droits et l'équité.

Un enfoque basado en la salud para toda la vida engloba estrategias durante la vida de las personas, que optimizan su capacidad funcional (teniendo en cuenta la interdependencia de los factores individuales, sociales, ambientales, temporales e intergeneracionales), permitiendo así el bienestar y la realización de los derechos. El enfoque encaja perfectamente con los esfuerzos por lograr una cobertura sanitaria universal y cumplir los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible (ODS). Si se aplica correctamente, un enfoque para toda la vida puede aumentar la eficacia del primero y ayudar a alcanzar la visión de este último, especialmente para garantizar la salud y el bienestar en todas las edades. Su aplicación requiere una comprensión compartida entre individuos y sociedades sobre cómo la salud depende de múltiples factores presentes a lo largo de la vida y entre generaciones. La mayoría de los estudios se han centrado en las enfermedades no contagiosas, en el envejecimiento de la población en los países con ingresos altos y en cuestiones epidemiológicas, teóricas y clínicas. El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar cómo el enfoque basado en la salud para toda la vida se puede extender a todos los grupos de edades, temas de salud y países, mediante la creación de una síntesis de las pruebas científicas existentes, la experiencia en diferentes países y los avances en estrategias y programas de salud. Se presenta un marco conceptual del enfoque junto con las implicaciones para la aplicación en los siguientes campos: (i) política e inversión; (ii) servicios y sistemas de salud; (iii) acción local, multisectorial y de varias partes interesadas; y (iv) medición, supervisión e investigación. Los ODS proporcionan un contexto único para aplicar un enfoque holístico y multisectorial a fin de alcanzar unos resultados transformadores para las personas, la prosperidad y el medio ambiente. Un enfoque para toda la vida puede intensificar estos esfuerzos, sobre todo por su énfasis en los derechos y la equidad.