Clinical practice recommendations on lipoprotein apheresis for children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: An expert consensus statement from ERKNet and ESPN.

Homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia is a life-threatening genetic condition, which causes extremely elevated LDL-C levels and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease very early in life. It is vital to start effective lipid-lowering treatment from diagnosis onwards. Even with dietary and current multimodal pharmaceutical lipid-lowering therapies, LDL-C treatment goals cannot be achieved in many children. Lipoprotein apheresis is an extracorporeal lipid-lowering treatment, which is used for decades, lowering serum LDL-C levels by more than 70% directly after the treatment. Data on the use of lipoprotein apheresis in children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia mainly consists of case-reports and case-series, precluding strong evidence-based guidelines. We present a consensus statement on lipoprotein apheresis in children based on the current available evidence and opinions from experts in lipoprotein apheresis from over the world. It comprises practical statements regarding the indication, methods, treatment goals and follow-up of lipoprotein apheresis in children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia and on the role of lipoprotein(a) and liver transplantation.

Clinical practice recommendations on lipoprotein apheresis for children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: an expert consensus statement from ERKNet and ESPN.

Homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia is a life-threatening genetic condition, which causes extremely elevated LDL-C levels and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease very early in life. It is vital to start effective lipid-lowering treatment from diagnosis onwards. Even with dietary and current multimodal pharmaceutical lipid-lowering therapies, LDL-C treatment goals cannot be achieved in many children. Lipoprotein apheresis is an extracorporeal lipid-lowering treatment, which is well established since three decades, lowering serum LDL-C levels by more than 70% per session. Data on the use of lipoprotein apheresis in children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia mainly consists of case-reports and case-series, precluding strong evidence-based guidelines. We present a consensus statement on lipoprotein apheresis in children based on the current available evidence and opinions from experts in lipoprotein apheresis from over the world. It comprises practical statements regarding the indication, methods, treatment targets and follow-up of lipoprotein apheresis in children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia and on the role of lipoprotein(a) and liver transplantation.

Antiplatelet and Antithrombotic Therapy in Type I Diabetes Mellitus: Update on Current Data.

Diabetes mellitus type 1 (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease characterized by a markedly elevated cardiovascular (CV) risk due to premature atherosclerosis. Previous studies have shown that intense glycemic control reduces the incidence of CV disease. Antiplatelet therapy is considered to be a very important therapy for secondary prevention of recurrent atherothrombotic events in patients with DM, while it may be considered for primary prevention in individuals with T1DM with additional CV risk factors. The aim of the present review is to summarize existing literature data regarding the thrombotic risk in T1DM patients and discuss current treatment strategies.

Lipoprotein Apheresis and Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 Inhibitors in Patients With Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia: A One Center Study.

AIM: We evaluated the lipid-lowering (LL) effect of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors (PCSK9i) in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH) treated with LL-drugs and lipoprotein apheresis (LA). PATIENTS AND METHODS: The PCSK9i treatment (evolocumab 420 mg/4 weeks, alirocumab 150 mg/2 weeks, or alirocumab 75 mg/2 weeks: 9, 6, and 2 patients, respectively) was initiated in patients with HeFH (n = 17; aged 35-69 years, 10 men, previously treated with statins + ezetimibe ± colesevelam and LA sessions for 2-12 years). A lipid profile was obtained before and immediately after the LA session and before, 1 and 2 months after switching to PCSK9i treatment. The duration of PCSK9i therapy ranged from 3 to 18 months. RESULTS: Median total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides (TG) levels before LA were 268, 198, 46, and 126 mg/dL, respectively, and decreased (at the end of the LA session) to 117, 50, 40, and 51 mg/dL, respectively (P < .001 for TC and P = .001 for all other comparisons). The median time-averaged LDL-C levels following LA were 155 (121, 176; median [25th, 75th percentile]) mg/dL. Median TC, LDL-C, and TG levels before PCSK9i therapy were 269, 190, and 127 mg/dL and decreased to 152, 100, and 95 mg/dL, respectively (P = .002, P < .002, and P < .03, respectively). Steady LDL-C levels with PCSK9i treatment were significantly lower compared with time-averaged LDL-C levels following LA (median value: 100 vs 155 mg/dL; P = .008). With PCSK9i, from 13 patients with CHD, 6 (46.1%) patients achieved LDL-C <70 mg/dL, and 2 patients (15.4%) achieved LDL-C <100 mg/dL. Lipoprotein apheresis was discontinued in all patients except for 2 who continued once monthly. CONCLUSIONS: PCSK9i can reduce LDL-C more consistently over time compared with a transient decrease following LA in HeFH patients. PCSK9i therapy may reduce the frequency of LA. Larger trials are required to establish the clinical implications of PCSK9i in patients previously on LA.

Practice of lipoprotein apheresis and short-term efficacy in children with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: Data from an international registry.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (hoFH) may cause life-threatening atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in childhood. Lipoprotein apheresis (LA) is considered a pivotal treatment option, but data on its efficacy, safety and optimal performance are limited. We therefore established an international registry on the execution and outcomes of LA in HoFH children. Here we report LA policies and short-term outcomes. METHODS: We approached centers worldwide, involved in LA in children with hoFH for participation. We collected information on clinical and treatment characteristics on patients aged 0-19 years between November 2016 and November 2018. RESULTS: We included 50 children, treated at 15 sites. Median (IQR) LDL-C levels at diagnosis, on medication and on LA were 19.2 (16.2-22.1), 14.4 (10.8-16.7) mmol/L and 4.6 mmol/L, respectively. Median (IQR) time between diagnosis and start of LA was 2.8 (1.0-4.7) years. Six (12%) patients developed cardiovascular disease during that period. Most children received LA either weekly (43%) or biweekly (37%). Seven (17%) patients reached mean LDL-C levels <3.5 mmol/L, all of them treated at least weekly. Xanthomas were present in 42 (84%) patients at diagnosis and disappeared completely in 19 (45%) on LA. Side effects of LA were minor. There were significant differences in LA conduction between sites in terms of frequency, responsible medical specialities and vascular access. CONCLUSIONS: LA is a safe treatment and may effectively lower LDL-C in children with HoFH. However, there is room for improvement with respect to time of onset and optimization of LA therapy in terms of frequency and execution.

Postprandial Hypertriglyceridaemia Revisited in the Era of Non-Fasting Lipid Profile Testing: A 2019 Expert Panel Statement, Narrative Review.

Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, defined as an increase in plasma triglyceride-containing lipoproteins following a fat meal, is a potential risk predictor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Several non-modifiable factors (genetics, age, sex and menopausal status) and lifestyle factors (diet, physical activity, smoking status, obesity, alcohol and medication use) may influence postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. This narrative review considers the studies published over the last decade that evaluated postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. Additionally, the genetic determinants of postprandial plasma triglyceride levels, the types of meals for studying postprandial triglyceride response, and underlying conditions (e.g. familial dyslipidaemias, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver and chronic kidney disease) that are associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia are reviewed; therapeutic aspects are also considered.

Postprandial Hypertriglyceridaemia Revisited in the Era of Non-Fasting Lipid Profile Testing: A 2019 Expert Panel Statement, Main Text.

Residual vascular risk exists despite the aggressive lowering of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL-C). A contributor to this residual risk may be elevated fasting, or non-fasting, levels of Triglyceride (TG)-rich lipoproteins. Therefore, there is a need to establish whethe a standardised Oral Fat Tolerance Test (OFTT) can improve atherosclerotic Cardiovascular (CV) Disease (ASCVD) risk prediction in addition to a fasting or non-fasting lipid profile. An expert panel considered the role of postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (as represented by an OFTT) in predicting ASCVD. The panel updated its 2011 statement by considering new studies and various patient categories. The recommendations are based on expert opinion since no strict endpoint trials have been performed. Individuals with fasting TG concentration <1 mmol/L (89 mg/dL) commonly do not have an abnormal response to an OFTT. In contrast, those with fasting TG concentration ≥2 mmol/L (175 mg/dL) or nonfasting ≥2.3 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) will usually have an abnormal response. We recommend considering postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia testing when fasting TG concentrations and non-fasting TG concentrations are 1-2 mmol/L (89-175 mg/dL) and 1.3-2.3 mmol/L (115-200 mg/dL), respectively as an additional investigation for metabolic risk prediction along with other risk factors (obesity, current tobacco abuse, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus). The panel proposes that an abnormal TG response to an OFTT (consisting of 75 g fat, 25 g carbohydrate and 10 g proteins) is >2.5 mmol/L (220 mg/dL). Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia is an emerging factor that may contribute to residual CV risk. This possibility requires further research. A standardised OFTT will allow comparisons between investigational studies. We acknowledge that the OFTT will be mainly used for research to further clarify the role of TG in relation to CV risk. For routine practice, there is a considerable support for the use of a single non-fasting sample.

Lipoprotein (a) Evolution: Possible Benefits and Harm. Genetic and Non-Genetic Factors Influencing its Plasma Levels.

The limited distribution of lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) to humans, Old World primates and to the European hedgehog, has raised considerable interest and speculation regarding its possible physiological role. Lp(a) has variable circulating concentrations (<0.1 - >100 mg/ml) which are highly genetically determined in humans. These characteristics gave rise to several theories concerning the origins and evolution of Lp(a). Lp(a) has a protective role after injury since Lp(a) particles bind to macrophages and platelets membrane receptors, leading to fibrin activation and injury healing. On the other hand, Lp(a) seems to be implicated in the formation of atheromatic plaques but also in cerebrovascular events and stenosis of the aortic valve. The main genetic factor determining plasma Lp(a) levels is the Lp(a) gene (LPA). Most Caucasian people have normal plasma Lp(a) concentrations, but there is important distribution variation according to race. Women seem to have increased Lp(a) levels compared with men, while diabetes mellitus type 2 favours lower plasma Lp(a) levels. Nutrition, hormones and several drugs may also influence circulating Lp(a) levels.

Risk Scores After Acute Coronary Syndrome.

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is associated with both short- and long-term unfavorable prognosis. Therefore, medical societies developed risk scores for predicting mortality and assessing decision-making regarding early aggressive treatment in patients presenting an ACS. The Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction and the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events risk scores are the most extensively investigated scores for ACS. Clinical judgment is also important. Significant differences in aggressive treatment of ACS still exist with respect to gender, age, and ethnicity. The reasons for these discrepancies need to be further elucidated in future studies. Therefore, generalizability of stratifications and risk scores in certain populations should be performed with caution.

MTP Gene Variants and Response to Lomitapide in Patients with Homozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia.

Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH) is a rare genetic disorder, which leads to premature cardiovascular diseases. Microsomal triglyceride transport protein (MTP) inhibitors, such as lomitapide, offer a new therapeutic approach for treating these patients. We evaluated the lipid lowering (LL) efficacy of lomitapide according to several gene variants in MTP. Four clinically and/or molecularly defined HoFH patients were treated with lomitapide in addition to conventional high intensity LL therapy and regular lipoprotein apheresis. Two patients responded to the therapy, with a significant reduction of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C＞50%, hyper-responders). Sequencing of all exonic and intronic flanking regions of the MTP gene in all patients revealed 36 different variants. The hyper-responders to lomitapide shared six common variants: rs17533489, rs79194015, rs745075, rs41275715, rs1491246, and rs17533517, which were not seen in hypo-responders (reduction in LDL-C＜50%). We suggest that in HoFH variants in the MTP gene may impact on the therapeutic response to lomitapide, but this requires further investigation.

Study of common variants of the apolipoprotein E and lipoprotein lipase genes in patients with coronary heart disease and variable body mass index.

OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we evaluated the influence of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and apolipoprotein (apo) E polymorphisms on lipid concentrations of 178 Greek men of similar age with coronary heart disease (CHD), but varying body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: Patients were divided according to their BMI (in kg/m²) into three groups: lean (BMI = 20-24.9), overweight (BMI = 25-29.9), and obese (BMI ≥ 30). Polymorphisms of LPL (HindIII, S447X) and apo E (ε2, ε3, ε4), and lipid parameters were studied. RESULTS: There was a negative correlation between BMI and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration (r = -0.272, p < 0.001), as has already been described. Lean homozygotes for the HindIII(+) allele had higher HDL-C levels compared to lean homozygotes for the HindIII(-) allele (p = 0.012). No correlation was found between S447X or apo E polymorphisms and BMI or plasma lipids in any group. Overweight men with the ε3/ε3 and SS genotypes had higher triglycerides concentration compared with overweight men with ε3/ε3 and SX (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: The HindIII polymorphism alone may influence HDL-C concentration in lean men, in contrast to S447X alone, which has no influence on any lipid parameters. However, the S447X and apo E polymorphisms may have a synergetic effect and alter plasma triglyceride concentration in overweight men.

Common variants of apolipoprotein E and cholesteryl ester transport protein genes in male patients with coronary heart disease and variable body mass index.

Plasma lipids are major risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) and apolipoprotein (apo) E genes are involved in lipoprotein metabolism, thus affecting plasma lipid and lipoproteins levels. Furthermore, such polymorphisms have been associated with susceptibility to CHD and obesity. We evaluated the influence of the gene polymorphisms of CETP TaqIB (B1, B2) and I405V (V, I) and apo E (∊2,∊3,∊4) on lipid levels, according to body mass index (BMI) in Greek men with CHD. The TaqIB (B1, B2) polymorphism affected plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in overweight men with CHD, whereas the I405V (V, I) polymorphism affected triglyceride concentrations in normal weight men. No correlation was found between BMI and apo E polymorphisms. Large prospective studies are required to investigate the relationships of CETP and apo E polymorphisms with lipids, BMI, and CHD susceptibility.

We are ageing.

Ageing and longevity is unquestioningly complex. Several thoughts and mechanisms of ageing such as pathways involved in oxidative stress, lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammation, DNA damage and repair, growth hormone axis and insulin-like growth factor (GH/IGF), and environmental exposure have been proposed. Also, some theories of ageing were introduced. To date, the most promising leads for longevity are caloric restriction, particularly target of rapamycin (TOR), sirtuins, hexarelin and hormetic responses. This review is an attempt to analyze the mechanisms and theories of ageing and achieving longevity.