Sleep surgery in syndromic and neurologically impaired children.

PURPOSE: To examine surgery performed for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in children with syndromic or neurologic comorbidities. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Medical records of 375 children with OSA were retrospectively reviewed, including 142 patients with trisomy 21, 105 with cerebral palsy, 53 with muscular dystrophy, 32 with spinal muscular atrophy, 18 with mucopolysaccharidoses, 14 with achondroplasia, and 11 with Prader-Willi. OUTCOME MEASURES: Apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), complications, length of postoperative stay, and endoscopic findings. RESULTS: 228 patients received 297 surgical interventions, with the remainder undergoing observation or positive pressure ventilation. Adenoidectomy was the most common procedure performed (92.1% of patients), followed by tonsillectomy (91.6%). Average AHI decreased following tonsillectomy, from 12.4 to 5.7 (p = 0.002). The most common DISE finding was the tongue base causing epiglottic retroflexion. Lingual tonsillectomy also resulted in an insignificant decrease in the AHI. CONCLUSIONS: Adenotonsillectomy, when there is hypertrophy, remains the mainstay of management of syndromic and neurologically-impaired children with OSA. However, additional interventions are often required, due to incomplete resolution of the OSA. DISE is valuable in identifying remaining sites of obstruction and guiding future management.

Neonatal retropharyngeal abscess with complications: Apnea and cervical osteomyelitis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical presentation and management strategies for neonatal retropharyngeal abscess (RPA). METHODS: Retrospective chart review was performed, and literature reviewed. RESULTS: We report two cases of neonatal RPA, with one complicated by cervical osteomyelitis, and the other presenting with apparent life-threatening events (ALTEs). A 6-week-old female underwent transoral drainage of an RPA, which grew methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. She had a prolonged recovery course and was found to have developed osteomyelitis of the dens and atlas. She was treated with 14 weeks of IV antibiotics and rigid collar fixation for spinal cord instability. A 2-month-old female was admitted after multiple ALTEs with episodes of apnea and pallor. Direct laryngoscopy revealed a bulging RPA, which was drained transorally. This grew multiple organisms including methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcal oralis and Prevotella species. CONCLUSIONS: Uncommon in neonates, RPA can present in this age group without fever, and are is likely to have airway complications than in older children. In cases with prolonged recovery, additional diagnostic intervention is recommended to rule out rare complications such as osteomyelitis. Emphasis in such complex cases is placed on a multidisciplinary approach to patient care, coordinating neonatologists, infectious disease specialists, neurosurgeons, and otolaryngologists.

Lingual Tonsillectomy for Treatment of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Meta-analysis.

Importance: Evidence indicates correlations between lingual tonsil hypertrophy and pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). However, to our knowledge, a meta-analysis of surgical outcomes for lingual tonsillectomy in children with OSA has not been conducted. Objective: To evaluate the therapeutic outcomes of lingual tonsillectomy for treatment of pediatric OSA. Data Sources: The study protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42015027053). PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Reviews databases were searched independently by 2 authors for relevant articles published by September 2016. Study Selection: The literature search identified English-language studies that used polysomnography to evaluate children with lingual tonsil hypertrophy and OSA after lingual tonsillectomy alone. The search keywords were lingual tonsil, lingual tonsillectomy, sleep endoscopy, sleep apnea, and child. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Polysomnographic data from each study were extracted. A random-effects model pooled postoperative sleep variable changes and success rates for lingual tonsillectomy in treating pediatric OSA. Main Outcomes and Measures: Four outcomes for lingual tonsillectomy were analyzed. These included net postoperative changes in the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), net postoperative changes in the minimum oxygen saturation, the overall success rate for a postoperative AHI less than 1, and the overall success rate for a postoperative AHI less than 5. Results: This meta-analysis consisted of 4 studies (mean sample size, 18.25 patients), with a total of 73 unique patients (mean [SD] age, 8.3 [1.1] years). Fifty-nine percent (27 of 46) of the patients were male, and 1 of the 4 studies did not specify number of males. Lingual tonsillectomy was indicated for persistent OSA after adenotonsillectomy in all cases. Lingual tonsil hypertrophy was evaluated using computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging in 1 study, sleep endoscopy in 2 studies, and cine magnetic resonance imaging in 1 study. The mean change in the AHI after lingual tonsillectomy was a reduction of 8.9 (95% CI, -12.6 to -5.2) events per hour. The mean change in the minimum oxygen saturation after lingual tonsillectomy was an increase of 6.0% (95% CI, 2.7%-9.2%). The overall success rate was 17% (95% CI, 7%-35%) for a postoperative AHI less than 1 and 51% (95% CI, 25%-76%) for a postoperative AHI less than 5. Postoperative complications that developed included airway obstruction, bleeding, and pneumonia. Conclusions and Relevance: Lingual tonsillectomy is an effective surgical management for children with OSA caused by lingual tonsil hypertrophy, and it achieves significant improvement in the AHI and the minimum oxygen saturation. However, children frequently have residual OSA after lingual tonsillectomy, and postoperative complications must be carefully managed.

It Is Just Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or Is It?

CASE: Carly is a 5-year-old girl who presents for an interdisciplinary evaluation due to behaviors at school and home suggestive of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Parent report of preschool teacher concerns was consistent with ADHD. Psychological testing showed verbal, visual-spatial, and fluid reasoning IQ scores in the average range; processing speed and working memory were below average. Carly's behavior improved when her mother left the room, and she was attentive during testing with a psychologist. Tests of executive function (EF) skills showed mixed results. Working memory was in the borderline range, although scores for response inhibition and verbal fluency were average. Parent ratings of ADHD symptoms and EF difficulties were elevated.Carly's parents recently separated; she now lives with her mother and sees her father on weekends. Multiple caregivers with inconsistent approaches to discipline assist with child care while her mother works at night as a medical assistant. Family history is positive for ADHD and learning problems in her father. Medical history is unremarkable. Review of systems is significant for nightly mouth breathing and snoring, but no night waking, bruxism, or daytime sleepiness. She has enlarged tonsils and a high-arched palate on physical examination.At a follow-up visit, parent rating scales are consistent with ADHD-combined type; teacher rating scales support ADHD hyperactive-impulsive type. Snoring has persisted. A sleep study indicated obstructive sleep apnea. After adenotonsillectomy, Carly had significant improvement in ADHD symptoms. She developed recurrence of behavior problems 1 year after the surgery.

The current state of pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: The purpose of this investigation was to assess current drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) practice patterns at centers that have published on the technique, to identify areas of agreement, and to identify areas of disagreement that may represent opportunities for improvement and standardization. STUDY DESIGN: Multi-institutional survey. METHODS: A survey was designed in two phases to evaluate preoperative assessment, intraoperative performance, and postoperative management of patients undergoing DISE. The survey was constructed iteratively in consultation with the all of the coauthors, each selected as an expert owing to their previous publication of one or more articles pertaining to pediatric DISE. In the first phase of survey creation, each expert was asked to provide narrative answers to questions pertaining to DISE. These responses served as the basis for a second survey. This second survey was then administered to all pediatric otolaryngologists at each respective institution. RESULTS: Overall, there was a low rate of agreement (33%) among the respondents; however, there was substantial agreement within institution, particularly for the use of anesthetic medications, the use of cine magnetic resonance imaging, and performance of bronchoscopy along with DISE. There was strong agreement among all respondents for performing DISE in a child with severe obstructive sleep apnea following adenotonsillectomy, regardless of comorbidities. CONCLUSION: This multi-institutional survey demonstrated a lack of consensus between experts and multiple opportunities for improvement. In general, there was agreement regarding the workup prior to DISE performance and the endoscopic protocol but disagreement regarding anesthetic protocol and management decisions. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4. Laryngoscope, 127:266-272, 2017.

Comparison of treatment outcomes between intracapsular and total tonsillectomy for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.

BACKGROUND: Intracapsular tonsillectomy (IT) has been advocated as a treatment for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). However, evidence in the literature utilizing polysomnography (PSG) is limited. OBJECTIVE: To examine the experience at a tertiary children's hospital to evaluate the effectiveness and risks of intracapsular tonsillectomy compared to total tonsillectomy (TT) for treating pediatric OSA. METHODS: A retrospective study was undertaken of pediatric tonsillectomy cases performed for OSA at a tertiary children's hospital from 2005 to 2010. Patients with recurrent tonsillitis, craniofacial abnormalities, chromosomal abnormalities, neuromuscular disease, and congenital malformations were excluded. Main outcome measures were apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), minimum oxygen saturation (minO2), and surgical complications. RESULTS: Of the 1583 patients reviewed in this study, there were 75 IT and 93 TT patients with pre- and post-operative PSG results. The IT patients were younger, had lower BMI, larger tonsil size, lower pre-operative (AHI) and lower post-operative AHI (p < 0.05). There was a similar percentage of patients that showed improvement in AHI and minimum oxygen saturation between the IT and TT groups. There were statistically similar average change in AHI and minimum oxygen saturation between the IT and TT groups at 5.6 ± 8.6 and 8.6 ± 12.9, respectively (p = 0.8) as well as similar improvement in minimum oxygen saturation between the two groups at 3.3% ± 4.3% and 3.0% ± 5.2%, respectively (p = 0.66). Of TT patients, 2.9% experienced post-operative bleeding with 1.6% requiring OR for control of hemorrhage. Of IT patients, 2.2% were found to have tonsillar regrowth with 2.0% returning to the OR for secondary tonsillectomy. CONCLUSIONS: Intracapsular tonsillectomy, like total tonsillectomy, is effective in improving polysomnogram results in appropriately selected children. Intracapsular tonsillectomy is a suitable option for the surgical treatment of pediatric OSA consequent to its demonstrated efficacy in relieving OSA and its favorable safety profile.

Gizmo is a mean word!

The editorial titled "Gizmos" in the April issue of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery was unfortunate. Intracapsular tonsillectomy is a rational surgical option for managing tonsillar hypertrophy causing obstructive sleep apnea in selected children. It is performed routinely by surgeons across the globe and has become the standard of care across northern Europe due to the high safety profile of the operation. The semirigid, dartlike design of the sinuplasty devices suggested the idea for an airway-specific set of high-pressure balloons. We began working on these in 2007 and had FDA approval in 2009. They are in wide use by many airway surgeons. Lingual tonsils are a frequent cause of obstructive sleep apnea, and there is no tool that manages this as effectively as endoscopic plasma ablation. We are all engaged in an honorable effort to improve care; surgical and creative skills are as important as analytical skills. Both are necessary for the continuous improvement of our work. Both are worthy of respect.

Pediatric teratoma and dermoid cysts.

Teratomas and dermoid cysts are germ cell neoplasms. This article focuses on cervical and craniofacial teratomas. Presentation of these neoplasms varies in degree of severity, from cosmetic deformities to airway distress requiring emergent intervention. Nasal lesions (particularly if suspicious for a nasal dermoid) require imaging before biopsy to assess for intracranial extension. Treatment consists of airway management if respiratory distress is present, and early surgical intervention. Postoperative follow-up is required to monitor for recurrence.

The transpalatal approach to repair of congenital Basal skull base cephaloceles.

Basal skull base herniations, including meningoceles and encephaloceles, are rare and may present with characteristic facial and neurologic features. The traditional craniotomy approach has known morbidity, and nasal endoscopy may not allow for control of large posterior basal defects, especially in newborns. We present two cases of successful repair of basal transsphenoidal meningoceles using an oral-transpalatal approach. The first patient with an intact palate presented with respiratory distress, and a palatectomy was performed for access to the skull base. The second patient had a large basal herniation that was reduced through a congenital midline cleft palate, and a calvarial bone graft was used to repair the defect. A literature search revealed 10 previous successful cases using the transpalatal repair, which allows for excellent access, low morbidity, and a team-oriented method to skull base surgery.

Pediatric button battery injuries: 2013 task force update.

Over the last 10 years, there has been a dramatic rise in the incidence of severe injuries involving children who ingest button batteries. Injury can occur rapidly and children can be asymptomatic or demonstrate non-specific symptoms until catastrophic injuries develop over a period of hours or days. Smaller size ingested button batteries will often pass without clinical sequellae; however, batteries 20mm and larger can more easily lodge in the esophagus causing significant damage. In some cases, the battery can erode into the aorta resulting in massive hemorrhage and death. To mitigate against the continued rise in life-threatening injuries, a national Button Battery Task Force was assembled to pursue a multi-faceted approach to injury prevention. This task force includes representatives from medicine, public health, industry, poison control, and government. A recent expert panel discussion at the 2013 American Broncho-Esophagological Association (ABEA) Meeting provided an update on the activities of the task force and is highlighted in this paper.

Fiber-optic sleep endoscopy in children with persistent obstructive sleep apnea: inter-observer correlation and comparison with awake endoscopy.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the inter-observer correlation of sleep endoscopy findings in children with persistent obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with awake office fiber-optic endoscopy. DESIGN: retrospective case series; blinded review. SETTING: tertiary care children's hospital. PATIENTS: Children with persistent obstructive sleep apnea. INTERVENTIONS: Both awake and drug induced sleep endoscopy were performed. Endoscopy video recordings were mixed at random on a DVD. Two pediatric otolaryngologists and two pediatric pulmonologists independently scored each recording using an upper airway endoscopy scoring survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: reviewers scored the following parameters: each structure's contribution (nose, nasopharynx, lateral pharyngeal walls, tongue base, supraglottis) to the obstruction, the main site in which the obstruction occurs, the severity of OSA (mild, moderate, severe), the level of confidence of endoscopy findings (poor, fair, good). RESULTS: When reviewing sleep endoscopy recordings for the upper airway obstruction site, the highest correlation among the four observers was found for the nasopharynx and the supraglottis (Kappa score: 0.6 and 0.5, respectively). Compared to awake endoscopy, sleep endoscopy demonstrated more cases of airway obstruction caused by collapse of lateral pharyngeal walls and base of tongue (McNemar test for symmetry, P value<0.05). Level of confidence among the four observers was higher in older children and lower in children with severe OSA. CONCLUSIONS: Sleep endoscopy is a consistently reliable tool for identifying the site of obstruction in children with persistent OSA. Though anesthetic induced sleep is not a perfect model for real sleep, the technique demonstrably guides further therapy better than awake endoscopy.

Effect of obesity and medical comorbidities on outcomes after adjunct surgery for obstructive sleep apnea in cases of adenotonsillectomy failure.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of body mass index (BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) and medical comorbidities on outcomes after lingual tonsillectomy and supraglottoplasty performed for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) caused by lingual tonsillar hypertrophy and occult laryngomalacia. DESIGN: Retrospective case review series SETTING: Academic tertiary referral center PATIENTS: Children with persistent OSAS after adenotonsillectomy who underwent surgery to correct obstruction at the level of the lingual tonsils and/or supraglottis identified on sleep endoscopy. INTERVENTIONS: All children underwent lingual tonsillectomy, supraglottoplasty, or both. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change in polysomnographic parameters, including apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), number of nighttime apneas, and lowest oxygen saturation level. RESULTS: We analyzed the medical records of 84 children with persistent OSAS after adenotonsillectomy who underwent either lingual tonsillectomy (n = 68), supraglottoplasty (n = 24) or both (n = 8). Compared with children with lingual tonsillar hypertrophy, children with occult laryngomalacia were younger, had lower BMI, and were more likely to have a medical comorbidity. Overall, both operations significantly improved the AHI; however, children with comorbidities had significantly higher postoperative AHIs after supraglottoplasty than those without, and overweight children had significantly higher postoperative AHIs after lingual tonsillectomy than those of normal weight. The BMI z-score and age had direct, though weak, correlations with postoperative AHI among all children undergoing either technique of adjunct airway surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Lingual tonsillar hypertrophy and occult laryngomalacia are 2 important causes of residual OSAS after adenotonsillectomy. However, they tend to affect distinct populations of children, and though appropriate surgical correction can improve AHI, cure rates are significantly worse for overweight children undergoing lingual tonsillectomy and for children with medical comorbidities undergoing supraglottoplasty.

The "postcricoid cushion": observations on the vascular anatomy of the posterior cricoid region.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the cyclical vascular enlargement that occurs in the postcricoid region during the expiratory phase on an infant's cry, and to consider the anatomic, physiologic, and clinical implications of this phenomenon, which we term the "postcricoid cushion." DESIGN: A total of 125 consecutive office fiber-optic laryngoscopic examinations in children and infants were reviewed for engorgement and vascular discoloration of the postcricoid region. Presence of a postcricoid cushion in relation to patient age was reviewed. A comprehensive literature review was also performed. SETTING: Tertiary care pediatric hospital. PATIENTS: Patients from newborns to 17 years old undergoing laryngoscopy for any reason. RESULTS: Sixty-one percent of the videos showed a postcricoid cushion with cyclical enlargement during crying. Eighty-eight percent of children younger than 24 months had presence of a cushion compared with only 38% of children 24 months or older (P < .001). Twenty-five percent of the cushions had violaceous discoloration that resembled a vascular malformation. CONCLUSIONS: Anatomic studies have demonstrated a rich venous plexus in the postcricoid region of the larynx. During the expiratory phase of an infant's cry, there is a cyclical engorgement, occasionally with vascular discoloration, in the postcricoid region at the same level of the venous plexus-the "postcricoid cushion." We propose that during crying, with acute elevation in intrathoracic pressure, there is a filling of the plexus, causing apposition of the postcricoid cushion against the posterior pharyngeal wall, which may serve as a protective barrier to emesis in infants. Our observations relate and differentiate this normal physiologic phenomenon from the rare cases of postcricoid vascular anomalies.

Sleep endoscopy in the evaluation of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.

Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is not always resolved or improved with adenotonsillectomy. Persistent or complex cases of pediatric OSA may be due to sites of obstruction in the airway other than the tonsils and adenoids. Identifying these areas in the past has been problematic, and therefore, therapy for OSA in children who have failed adenotonsillectomy has often been unsatisfactory. Sleep endoscopy is a technique that can enable the surgeon to determine the level of obstruction in a sleeping child with OSA. With this knowledge, site-specific surgical therapy for persistent and complex pediatric OSA may be possible.

Sleep endoscopy as a diagnostic tool in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.

OBJECTIVES: Ten to twenty percent of children have persistent obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) after adenotonsillectomy (T&A). We hypothesize that sleep endoscopy, a flexible fiberoptic examination of the pharynx under anesthesia, is an effective tool for identifying sites of persistent obstruction. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we reviewed records of children who had symptoms consistent with OSA and a positive polysomnogram (PSG) who underwent sleep endoscopy followed by sleep endoscopy directed surgery. Data collection included age, BMI and co-morbidities. Apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) was compared to pre and post surgery for each child using a paired t-test. RESULTS: Of the 80 children who underwent sleep endoscopy followed by directed surgery, 65% were male, mean age was 6 years (SD 3.75 years), average BMI was 19 (SD 0.43 years) and 28% had co-morbidities. For the 51% of patients who had persistent OSA after T&A, the mean AHI after sleep endoscopy directed surgery was significantly lower then before surgery (7.9 vs. 15.7, p<.01). For the 49% of patients who had never undergone surgery for OSA, or who were surgically naïve, and underwent sleep endoscopy directed surgery, the mean AHI was significantly lower then before surgery (8.0 vs. 13.8, p<.01). CONCLUSIONS: Sleep endoscopy is a consistently reliable tool for identifying the sites of obstruction in both surgically naive children and those with persistent OSA after T&A.

Supraglottoplasty for occult laryngomalacia to improve obstructive sleep apnea syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the polysomnographic outcomes after supraglottoplasty (SGP) performed for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) associated with occult laryngomalacia. DESIGN: Retrospective case series with medical chart review. SETTING: Tertiary pediatric medical center. PATIENTS: Twenty-two patients aged 2 to 17 years met the inclusion criteria of polysomnography-proven OSAS and occult laryngomalacia seen on flexible fiber-optic sleep endoscopy. Infants with congenital laryngomalacia were excluded. INTERVENTION: Carbon dioxide laser SGP was performed either alone or in conjunction with other operations for OSAS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Preoperative and postoperative nocturnal polysomnographic data were paired and analyzed statistically. RESULTS: Supraglottoplasty for occult laryngomalacia resulted in statistically significant reduction in the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) (from 15.4 to 5.4) (P <.001). Subgroup analysis of children who underwent either SGP alone or in combination with other interventions showed comparable reductions in AHI. Medical comorbidities were associated with worsened postoperative outcomes, although still significantly improved compared with baseline. Overall, 91% of children had an improvement in AHI, and 64% had only mild or no residual OSAS after SGP. CONCLUSION: Supraglottoplasty is an effective technique for the treatment of OSAS associated with occult laryngomalacia.

The use of botulinum toxin for pediatric cricopharyngeal achalasia.

OBJECTIVES: Cricopharyngeal achalasia is an uncommon cause of feeding difficulties in the pediatric population, and is especially rare in infants. Traditional management options include dilation or open cricopharyngeal myotomy. The use of botulinum toxin has been preliminarily reported for cricopharyngeal achalasia in children as a modality for diagnosis and management. This study describes the use of botulinum toxin as a definitive treatment for pediatric cricopharyngeal achalasia. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed of three patients who were diagnosed with cricopharyngeal achalasia and underwent botulinum toxin injections to the cricopharyngeus muscle. The charts were reviewed for etiology, botulinum toxin dosage delivered, length of follow-up, postoperative need for nasogastric tube placement, and swallow studies. RESULTS: A total of 7 botulinum toxin injections into the cricopharyngeus muscle were performed in three infants with primary cricopharyngeal achalasia between April 2006 and February 2011. Mean dosage was 23.4 units per session (range: 10-44 units), or 3.1 U/kg (range: 1.4-5.3 U/kg). Mean interval period between injections was 3.3 months (range: 2.7-4.0 months). Mean follow-up period was 22.1 months (range: 3.4-44.5 months). One patient required hospital readmission after injection for presumed aspiration but recovered without need for surgical intervention. No long-term complications were noted post-operatively. All patients improved clinically and ultimately had their nasogastric feeding tubes removed. CONCLUSIONS: Botulinum toxin appears to be a safe and effective option in the management of primary cricopharyngeal achalasia in children, and may prevent the need for myotomy.

The use of botulinum toxin for pediatric cricopharyngeal achalasia.

OBJECTIVES: Cricopharyngeal achalasia is an uncommon cause of feeding difficulties in the pediatric population, and is especially rare in infants. Traditional management options include dilation or open cricopharyngeal myotomy. The use of botulinum toxin has been preliminarily reported for cricopharyngeal achalasia in children as a modality for diagnosis and management. This study describes the use of botulinum toxin as a definitive treatment for pediatric cricopharyngeal achalasia. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed of three patients who were diagnosed with cricopharyngeal achalasia and underwent botulinum toxin injections to the cricopharyngeus muscle. The charts were reviewed for etiology, botulinum toxin dosage delivered, length of follow-up, post-operative need for nasogastric tube placement, and swallow studies. RESULTS: A total of 7 botulinum toxin injections into the cricopharyngeus muscle were performed in three infants with primary cricopharyngeal achalasia between April 2006 and February 2011. Mean dosage was 23.4 units per session (range: 10-44 units), or 3.1 U/kg (range: 1.4-5.3 U/kg). Mean interval period between injections was 3.3 months (range: 2.7-4.0 months). Mean follow-up period was 22.1 months (range: 3.4-44.5 months). One patient required hospital readmission after injection for presumed aspiration but recovered without need for surgical intervention. No long-term complications were noted post-operatively. All patients improved clinically and ultimately had their nasogastric feeding tubes removed. CONCLUSIONS: Botulinum toxin appears to be a safe and effective option in the management of primary cricopharyngeal achalasia in children, and may prevent the need for myotomy.

Choanal atresia: current concepts and controversies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Choanal atresia is a common and widely recognized craniofacial disorder characterized by obliteration of the posterior nasal aperture. Given the long time since its original description, controversy persists regarding pathogenesis and optimal surgical techniques. This review addresses current literature on choanal atresia and identifies areas of debate and future opportunities in research. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent molecular mechanisms in retinoic acid receptor development have been described in the pathogenesis of choanal atresia. Whereas surgical treatment is generally believed to be effective in alleviating respiratory symptoms, consistent data confirming efficacy are scarce regarding best surgical approach with and without endoscopic sinus techniques, adjuvant use of stents, use of antiproliferative agents and laser-assisted surgery. Recent studies regarding each technique are discussed. SUMMARY: Despite vigorous research, the pathogenesis remains elusive and unproven. Many surgical techniques have been advocated; however, there is no dominant approach. Trends in treatment are directed towards the use of highly advanced endoscopic approaches with the use of microdebriders, small drill bits and telescopes to minimize traumatic injury that leads to postoperative scarring and restenosis.