Astrocytes Are the Source of TNF Mediating Homeostatic Synaptic Plasticity.

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF) mediates homeostatic synaptic plasticity (HSP) in response to chronic activity blockade, and prior work has established that it is released from glia. Here we demonstrate that astrocytes are the necessary source of TNF during HSP. Hippocampal cultures from rats of both sexes depleted of microglia still will increase TNF levels following activity deprivation and still express TTX-driven HSP. Slice cultures from mice of either sex with a conditional deletion of TNF from microglia also express HSP, but critically, slice cultures with a conditional deletion of TNF from astrocytes do not. In astrocytes, glutamate signaling is sufficient to reduce NFκB signaling and TNF mRNA levels. Further, chronic TTX treatment increases TNF in an NFκB-dependent manner, although NFκB signaling is dispensable for the neuronal response to TTX-driven HSP. Thus, astrocytes can sense neuronal activity through glutamate spillover and increase TNF production when activity falls, to drive HSP through the production of TNF.

Tremendous Fidelity of Vitamin D3 in Age-related Neurological Disorders.

Vitamin D3 (VD) is a secosteroid hormone and shows a pleiotropic effect in brain-related disorders where it regulates redox imbalance, inflammation, apoptosis, energy production, and growth factor synthesis. Vitamin D3's active metabolic form, 1,25-dihydroxy Vitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3 or calcitriol), is a known regulator of several genes involved in neuroplasticity, neuroprotection, neurotropism, and neuroinflammation. Multiple studies suggest that VD deficiency can be proposed as a risk factor for the development of several age-related neurological disorders. The evidence for low serum levels of 25-hydroxy Vitamin D3 (25(OH)D3 or calcidiol), the major circulating form of VD, is associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), dementia, and cognitive impairment. Despite decades of evidence on low VD association with neurological disorders, the precise molecular mechanism behind its beneficial effect remains controversial. Here, we will be delving into the neurobiological importance of VD and discuss its benefits in different neuropsychiatric disorders. The focus will be on AD, PD, and HD as they share some common clinical, pathological, and epidemiological features. The central focus will be on the different attributes of VD in the aspect of its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-cholinesterase activity, and psychotropic effect in different neurodegenerative diseases.

Early TNF-Dependent Regulation of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses on Striatal Direct Pathway Medium Spiny Neurons in the YAC128 Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the huntingtin gene. Neurodegeneration first occurs in the striatum, accompanied by an elevation in inflammatory cytokines. Using the presymptomatic male YAC128 HD model mouse, we examined the synaptic input onto the striatal medium spiny neurons to look for early changes that precede degeneration. We observed an increase in excitatory synaptic strength, as measured by AMPA/NMDA ratios, specifically on direct pathway D1 receptor expressing medium spiny neurons, with no changes on indirect pathway neurons. The changes in excitation were accompanied by a decrease in inhibitory synaptic strength, as measured by the amplitude of miniature inhibitory synaptic currents. The pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) was elevated in the striatum of YAC128 at the ages examined. Critically, the changes in excitatory and inhibitory inputs are both dependent on TNF signaling, as blocking TNF signaling genetically or pharmacological normalized synaptic strength. The observed changes in synaptic function are similar to the changes seen in D1 medium spiny neurons treated with high levels of TNF, suggesting that saturating levels of TNF exist in the striatum even at early stages of HD. The increase in glutamatergic synaptic strength and decrease in inhibitory synaptic strength would increase direct pathway neuronal excitability, which may potentiate excitotoxicity during the progress of HD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The striatum is the first structure to degenerate in Huntington's disease, but the early changes that presage the degeneration are not well defined. Here we identify early synaptic changes in the YAC128 mouse model of Huntington's disease specifically on a subpopulation of striatal neurons. These neurons have stronger excitatory synapses and weaker inhibitory inputs, and thus would increase the susceptibility to excitotoxicity. These changes are dependent on signaling by the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα. TNF is elevated even at early presymptomatic stages, and blocking TNF signaling even acutely will reverse the synaptic changes. This suggests early intervention could be important therapeutically.

Unprecedented effect of vitamin D3 on T-cell receptor beta subunit and alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expression in a 3-nitropropionic acid induced mouse model of Huntington's disease.

Introduction: 3-NP induction in rodent models has been shown to induce selective neurodegeneration in the striatum followed by the cortex (Brouillet, 2014). However, it remains unclear whether, under such a neurotoxic condition, characterized by neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, the gene expression of the immune resident protein, T-cell receptor beta subunit (TCR-ß), α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChRs), the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and antioxidants (Cat and GpX4) get modulated on Vitamin D3 (VD) supplementation in the central nervous system. Methods: In the present study, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to study the expression of respective genes. Male C57BL/6 mice (8-12 weeks) were divided into four groups namely, Group I: Control (saline); Group II: 3-NP induction via i.p (HD); Group III: Vitamin D3 (VD) and Group IV: (HD + VD) (Manjari et al., 2022). Results: On administration of 500IU/kg/day of VD, HD mice showed a significant reduction in the gene expression of the immune receptor, TCR-ß subunit, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), inflammatory cytokines, and key antioxidants, followed by a decrease in the acetylcholinesterase activity. Conclusion: A novel neuroprotective effect of VD in HD is demonstrated by combating the immune receptor, TCR-ß gene expression, antioxidant markers, and inflammatory cytokines. In addition, HD mice on VD administration for 0-15 days showed an enhancement in cholinergic signaling with restoration in α7 nAChRs mRNA and protein expression in the striatum and cortex.

Restorative Action of Vitamin D3 on Motor Dysfunction Through Enhancement of Neurotrophins and Antioxidant Expression in the Striatum.

A number of studies has explored a positive correlation between low levels of serum Vitamin D3 (VD; cholecalciferol) and development of neurodegenerative diseases including Huntington's disease (HD). In the present study, the prophylactic effect of VD on motor dysfunction was studied in an experimental model of HD. An HD-like syndrome was induced in male C57BL/6 mice through an intraperitoneal injection (i.p) of 3-NP for 3 consecutive doses at 12 h interval of time as described previously (Amende et al. 2005). This study investigated thein-vivotherapeutic potential of VD (500 IU/kg/day) supplementation on movement, motor coordination, motor activity and biochemical changes in this HD model. Mice were divided into four groups: Group I: Control (saline); Group II: 3-NP induced HD (HD); Group III: Vitamin D3 (VD) and Group IV: 3-NP induced + post Vitamin D3 injection (HD + VD). All groups of mice were tested for locomotion, gait analysis and rotarod performances over a span of 30-days. VD administration rescued locomotor dysfunction and neuromuscular impairment in HD mice with no change in gait dynamics. In addition, administration of VD to 3-NP treated mice led to a significant enhancement in the expression of key neurotrophic factors including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nerve-growth factor (NGF), the Vitamin D receptor (VDR), and antioxidant markers (catalases [Cat] and glutathione peroxidase [GpX4]) in the striatum, suggesting a detoxification effect of VD. Altogether, our results show that VD supplementation induces survival signals, diminishes oxidative stress, and reduces movement and motor dysfunction in HD.

Impact of ER Stress and ER-Mitochondrial Crosstalk in Huntington's Disease.

Accumulation of misfolded proteins is a common phenomenon of several neurodegenerative diseases. The misfolding of proteins due to abnormal polyglutamine (PolyQ) expansions are linked to the development of PolyQ diseases including Huntington's disease (HD). Though the genetic basis of PolyQ repeats in HD remains prominent, the primary molecular basis mediated by PolyQ toxicity remains elusive. Accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER or disruption of ER homeostasis causes ER stress and activates an evolutionarily conserved pathway called Unfolded protein response (UPR). Protein homeostasis disruption at organelle level involving UPR or ER stress response pathways are found to be linked to HD. Due to dynamic intricate connections between ER and mitochondria, proteins at ER-mitochondria contact sites (mitochondria associated ER membranes or MAMs) play a significant role in HD development. The current review aims at highlighting the most updated information about different UPR pathways and their involvement in HD disease progression. Moreover, the role of MAMs in HD progression has also been discussed. In the end, the review has focused on the therapeutic interventions responsible for ameliorating diseased states via modulating either ER stress response proteins or modulating the expression of ER-mitochondrial contact proteins.

An opinion on the debatable function of brain resident immune protein, T-cell receptor beta subunit in the central nervous system.

In recent years scientific research has established that the nervous and immune systems have shared molecular signaling components. Proteins native to immune cells, which are also found in the brain, have neuronal functions in the nervous system where they affect synaptic plasticity, axonal regeneration, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission. Certain native immune molecules like major histocompatibility complex I (MHC-I), paired immunoglobulin receptor B (PirB), toll-like receptor (TLR), cluster of differentiation-3 zeta (CD3ζ), CD4 co-receptor, and T-cell receptor beta (TCR-ß) expression in neurons have been extensively documented. In this review, we provide our opinion and discussed the possible roles of T-cell receptor beta subunits in modulating the function of neurons in the central nervous system. Based on the previous findings of Syken and Shatz., 2003; Nishiyori et al., 2004; Rodriguez et., 1993 and Komal et., 2014; we discuss whether restrictive expression of TCR-ß subunits in selected brain regions could be involved in the pathology of neurological disorders and whether their aberrant enhancement in expression may be considered as a suitable biomarker for aging or neurodegenerative diseases like Huntington's disease (HD).

Chronic AdipoRon Treatment Mimics the Effects of Physical Exercise on Restoring Hippocampal Neuroplasticity in Diabetic Mice.

Administration of exercise mimetic drugs could be a novel therapeutic approach to combat comorbid neurodegeneration and metabolic syndromes. Adiponectin is an adipocyte-secreted hormone. In addition to its antidiabetic effect, adiponectin mediates the antidepressant effect of physical exercise associated with adult hippocampal neurogenesis. The antidiabetic effect of the adiponectin receptor agonist AdipoRon has been demonstrated, but its potential pro-cognitive and neurotrophic effects in the hippocampus under diabetic condition are still unclear. This study reported that chronic AdipoRon treatment for 2 weeks improved hippocampal-dependent spatial recognition memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Besides, AdipoRon treatment increased progenitor cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of diabetic mice. Furthermore, AdipoRon treatment significantly increased dendritic complexity, spine density, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) in the dentate region, and increased BDNF levels in the DG of diabetic mice. AdipoRon treatment activated AMPK/PGC-1α signalling in the DG, whereas increases in cell proliferation and LTP were not observed when PGC-1α signalling was pharmacologically inhibited. In sum, chronic AdipoRon treatment partially mimics the benefits of physical exercise for learning and memory and hippocampal neuroplasticity in the diabetic brain. The results suggested that AdipoRon could be a potential physical exercise mimetic to improve hippocampal plasticity and hence rescue learning and memory impairment typically associated with diabetes.

Synthesis of Montmorillonite Clay/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Nanocomposites and Their Mechanical Properties.

The montmorillonite/poly(vinyl alcohol) (MMT/PVA) nanocomposites films were synthesized by aqueous dispersion of MMT clay to PVA solution at 70-75 °C for 4 h. The average thicknesses of the MMT/PVA films were 85-120 µm. The amount of clay was varied between 0-5 wt%. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed the coexistence of exfoliated and intercalated structure of MMT clay in PVA. The Raman analysis of 1 wt% MMT/PVA showed, increased peak intensity at 1146.5 cm-1, that is indicator of higher crystallinity compare to pure PVA. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of MMT/PVA nanocomposite films showed an increase in the storage modulus. The optimum value of storage modulus obtained was 8,752 MPa on dispersing 1.0 wt% MMT clay in the PVA yielding 20.0% increase in the storage modulus compare to the pure PVA films. Thermo-gravimetric, analysis (TGA) of the MMT/PVA nanocomposite films also showed the increase in the thermal stability with respect to pure PVA films. The 1.0 wt% MMT clay loading in PVA, improved the thermal stability of MMT/PVA to 325 °C compared to 250 °C for pure PVA.

Vulnerability to nicotine self-administration in adolescent mice correlates with age-specific expression of α4* nicotinic receptors.

The majority of smokers begin during adolescence, a developmental period with a high susceptibility to substance abuse. Adolescents are affected differently by nicotine compared to adults, with adolescents being more vulnerable to nicotine's rewarding properties. It is unknown if the age-dependent molecular composition of a younger brain contributes to a heightened susceptibility to nicotine addiction. Nicotine, the principle pharmacological component of tobacco, binds and activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain. The most prevalent is the widely expressed α4-containing (α4*) subtype which mediates reward and is strongly implicated in nicotine dependence. Exposing different age groups of mice, postnatal day (P) 44-86 days old, to a two bottle-choice oral nicotine self-administration paradigm for five days yielded age-specific consumption levels. Nicotine self-administration was elevated in the P44 group, peaked at P54-60 and was drastically lower in the P66 through P86 groups. We also quantified α4* nAChR expression via spectral confocal imaging of brain slices from α4YFP knock-in mice, in which the α4 nAChR subunit is tagged with a yellow fluorescent protein. Quantitative fluorescence revealed age-specific α4* nAChR expression in dopaminergic and GABAergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area. Receptor expression showed a strong positive correlation with daily nicotine dose, suggesting that α4* nAChR expression levels are age-specific and may contribute to the propensity to self-administer nicotine.

T-cell receptors modify neuronal function in the central nervous system.

Recent published findings have shown that many proteins discovered in the immune system and residing on immune cells with well established immune-related functions are also found in neurons of the central nervous system. These studies have uncovered a rich variety of neuronal functions attributed to these immune proteins. This review will focus on two key interacting protein complexes that previously were known for adaptive immune reactions, the major histocompatability complex and the T-cell receptor complex. We will review where these immune proteins are expressed in the CNS and their neuronal function.

cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibits α7 nicotinic receptor activity in layer 1 cortical interneurons through activation of D1/D5 dopamine receptors.

KEY POINTS: Protein kinases can modify the function of many proteins including ion channels. However, the role of protein kinase A in modifying nicotinic receptors in the CNS has never been investigated. We showed through whole-cell recordings of layer 1 prefrontal cortical interneurons that α7 nicotinic responses are negatively modulated by protein kinase A. Furthermore, we show that stimulation of dopamine receptors can similarly attenuate α7 nicotinic responses through the activation of protein kinase A. These results suggest how the interaction of the cholinergic and dopaminergic systems may influence neuronal excitability in the brain. ABSTRACT: Phosphorylation of ion channels, including nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), by protein kinases plays a key role in the modification of synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability. α7 nAChRs are the second most prevalent nAChR subtype in the CNS following α4ß2. Serine 365 in the M3-M4 cytoplasmic loop of the α7 nAChR is a phosphorylation site for protein kinase A (PKA). D1/D5 dopamine receptors signal through the adenylate cyclase-PKA pathway and play a key role in working memory and attention in the prefrontal cortex. Thus, we examined whether the dopaminergic system, mediated through PKA, functionally interacts with the α7-dependent cholinergic neurotransmission. In layer 1 interneurons of mouse prefrontal cortex, α7 nicotinic currents were decreased upon stimulation with 8-Br-cAMP, a PKA activator. In HEK 293T cells, dominant negative PKA abolished 8-Br-cAMP's effect of diminishing α7 nicotinic currents, while a constitutively active PKA catalytic subunit decreased α7 currents. In brain slices, the PKA inhibitor KT-5720 nullified 8-Br-cAMP's effect of attenuating α7 nicotinic responses, while applying a PKA catalytic subunit in the pipette solution decreased α7 currents. 8-Br-cAMP stimulation reduced surface expression of α7 nAChRs, but there was no change in single-channel conductance. The D1/D5 dopamine receptor agonist SKF 83822 similarly attenuated α7 nicotinic currents from layer 1 interneurons and this attenuation of nicotinic current was prevented by KT-5720. These results demonstrate that dopamine receptor-mediated activation of PKA negatively modulates nicotinic neurotransmission in prefrontal cortical interneurons, which may be a contributing mechanism of dopamine modulation of cognitive behaviours such as attention or working memory.

T-cell receptor activation decreases excitability of cortical interneurons by inhibiting α7 nicotinic receptors.

Many proteins in the immune system are also expressed in the brain. One such class of immune proteins are T-cell receptors (TCRs), whose functions in T lymphocytes in adaptive immunity are well characterized. In the brain, TCRs are confined to neocortical neurons, but their functional role has not been determined. In mouse layer 1 neocortical neurons, TCR activation inhibited α7 nicotinic currents. TCRs modulated α7 currents via tyrosine phosphorylation of α7 nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) through src tyrosine kinases because eliminating lck kinase expression, coexpressing fyn kinase dead, or mutating tyrosine to alanine in α7 blocked the effect of TCR activation. We found that TCR stimulation decreased surface α7 nAChRs and reduced single-channel conductance. These results reveal that TCRs play a major role in the modulation of cholinergic neurotransmission in the brain mediated by α7 nAChRs and that this has a profound effect on regulating neuronal excitability.

RIC-3 differentially modulates α4ß2 and α7 nicotinic receptor assembly, expression, and nicotine-induced receptor upregulation.

BACKGROUND: Recent work has shown that the chaperone resistant to inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (RIC-3) is critical for the folding, maturation and functional expression of a variety of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. α7 nicotinic receptors can only assemble and functionally express in select lines of cells, provided that RIC-3 is present. In contrast, α4ß2 nicotinic receptors can functionally express in many cell lines even without the presence of RIC-3. Depending on the cell line, RIC-3 has differential effects on α4ß2 receptor function - enhancement in mammalian cells but inhibition in Xenopus oocytes. Other differences between the two receptor types include nicotine-induced upregulation. When expressed in cell lines, α4ß2 receptors readily and robustly upregulate with chronic nicotine exposure. However, α7 nicotinic receptors appear more resistant and require higher concentrations of nicotine to induce upregulation. Could the coexpression of RIC-3 modulate the extent of nicotine-induced upregulation not only for α7 receptors but also α4ß2 receptors? We compared and contrasted the effects of RIC-3 on assembly, trafficking, protein expression and nicotine-induced upregulation on both α7 and α4ß2 receptors using fluorescent protein tagged nicotinic receptors and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy imaging. RESULTS: RIC-3 increases assembly and cell surface trafficking of α7 receptors but does not alter α7 protein expression in transfected HEK293T cells. In contrast, RIC-3 does not affect assembly of α4ß2 receptors but increases α4 and ß2 subunit protein expression. Acute nicotine (30 min exposure) was sufficient to upregulate FRET between α4 and ß2 subunits. Surprisingly, when RIC-3 was coexpressed with α4ß2 receptors nicotine-induced upregulation was prevented. α7 receptors did not upregulate with acute nicotine in the presence or absence of RIC-3. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide interesting novel data that RIC-3 differentially regulates assembly and expression of different nicotinic receptor subunits. These results also show that nicotine-mediated upregulation of α4ß2 receptors can be dynamically regulated by the presence of the chaperone, RIC-3. This could explain a novel mechanism why high affinity α4ß2 receptors are upregulated in specific neuronal subtypes in the brain and not others.

A rapid agonist application system for fast activation of ligand-gated ion channels.

The synaptic delay between neurotransmitter release across the synaptic cleft and activation of neurotransmitter gated ion channels is less than a ms. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), like many other classes of ligand-gated ion channels, are comprised of different protein subunits forming a variety of receptors with different activation and desensitization kinetics and pharmacological sensitivities. To measure and fully characterize ligand-gated ion channel currents accurately, one must apply agonists in a fraction of a ms and repeatedly at various concentrations without any prior desensitization of the receptors. In this paper, we describe an economical, easy to assemble and operate rapid drug application system. The drug applicator system consists of a parallel array of three pinch valves, which allow either agonist or wash solution into a theta tube. Solution exchanges of 0.16 ms can be achieved. In transfected cells, ACh elicited α4ß2 nicotinic currents with mean rise times of 55±13 ms. We recorded α7 nAChRs, which desensitize very rapidly, and obtained very fast rise times of 19±2 ms. With this novel drug applicator, agonists can be applied repeatedly without any loss of current. Hence, complete dose-response relations can be obtained for even α7 nAChRs, which are very sensitive to desensitization caused by agonist exposure on a ms time scale. The drug application system can also be extended to the study of ligand-gated ion channels in brain slices. The theta tube valve-driven drug applicator system can be applied to study other ligand-gated ion channels including glutamate and GABA receptors.