Impact of a mixed method training programme on attitudes of future doctors toward intellectual disability.

Objective: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mixed method training programme in improving attitudes of senior medical students toward intellectual disability (ID). Methods: This study was a quasi-experimental intervention study conducted with the senior medical students. The intervention groups received a mixed method training programme that included seminars, role-playing, social contact, and interactions with people with ID as simulated patients, which have been described in the literature as effective training methods. The control groups was shown a video unrelated to ID. The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by administering the Attitudes Toward Intellectual Disability Questionnaire (ATTID)-Short Form to both the intervention and control groups as pre-intervention, post-intervention, and 6-week follow-up. Results: A significant difference was found positively between pre-intervention post-intervention, and 6-week follow-up ATTID-Short Form scores in the intervention groups on factors of Discomfort, Knowledge of capacity and rights, Sensitivity or tenderness, Knowledge of causes, except for the Interaction factor. The differences between pre-intervention and 6-week follow-up scores were significantly greater in the intervention groups compared with the control groups on all factors except the Sensitivity or tenderness factor. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the mixed method training programme resulted a positive change in students' attitudes toward people with ID.

Development and Validation of Coronavirus Disease 2019-Induced Perceived Stigmatization in Physicians Scale.

Background: It is well-established that healthcare professionals are stigmatized by the society during infectious disease outbreaks. The present study aimed to develop a scale to measure the coronavirus disease 2019-induced perceived stigmatization in physicians and investigate its validity and reliability. Methods: The present methodological type of study was carried out with 303 physicians working with a university hospital. The researchers drafted a 5-point Likert-type "Coronavirus Disease 2019-Induced Perceived Stigmatization in Physicians Scale" by using an item pool consisting of 35 items upon a review of the relevant literature. The internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha coefficient), item-total correlation coefficient, and test-retest analyses were used to assess the reliability of the scale. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were performed with an aim to evaluate the construct validity of the scale. Results: The scale consisted of 10 items and 2 domains (environmental perceived stigmatization and personally perceived stigmatization) upon completion of the scale development step. The items on the scale explained 61.66% of the total variance, where the factor loads were between 0.66 and 0.85. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale was 0.88, and the item-total correlation coefficients were all above 0.3. As a result of confirmatory factor analysis, the resultant model had goodness-of-fit indices with sufficient fit. Conclusion: The Coronavirus Disease 2019-Induced Perceived Stigmatization in Physicians Scale was a reliable and valid tool for the physicians.

Comparison of anxiety, stress, and social support levels of female patients with type 1 diabetes and mothers whose children have type 1 diabetes.

Purpose: Patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) are insulin-dependent from diagnosis. Both the individual and their immediate circle are at risk for psychiatric morbidity. We aimed to compare the anxiety, stress, and social support levels of adult women with a diagnosis of T1DM and adult women with a child diagnosed with T1DM. Besides, the study intended to examine two groups' stress and anxiety factors. Methods: The data were collected using the Sociodemographic Data Form, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Sixty-three women participated in the study. Results: There was no difference between the groups regarding anxiety, stress, and perceived social support score averages (p > 0.05 each). However, clinically significant state anxiety was higher in the group of mothers (χ²=4.234 df = 1 p = 0.040). In women with T1DM, higher education was associated with lower stress, lower state, and lower trait anxiety (r=-0.455 p = 0.004, r=-0.428 p = 0.007, r=-0.317 p = 0.049); higher numbers of insulin injections were associated with higher state anxiety (r = 0.368 p = 0.021), social support was associated with lower stress and lower trait anxiety (r=-0.478 p = 0.002, r = 0.449 p = 0.004). In mothers of diabetic children, the increase in the child's HbA1c level was associated with an increase in the mother's state anxiety (r = 0.433 p = 0.035); social support was associated with lower trait anxiety (r=-0.421 p = 0.040). Conclusion: Caring for a child with T1DM was stressful and anxiety-provoking as having T1DM. Interventions including social support, may benefit mental health in mothers of diabetic children and women with T1DM.

A distinct neurocognitive profile: unipolar mania.

OBJECTIVE: Despite a growing number of studies reporting patients with a history of mania without depression have several socio-demographic and clinical differences than bipolar disorder patients, unipolar mania is recognized as bipolar I disorder in the most commonly used classification systems. Studies showing that unipolar mania is a separate clinical entity are insufficient in number, and to the best of our knowledge, there has been no study investigating the neuropsychological differences in this area. The aim of this study is to evaluate the neurocognitive differences between unipolar mania, bipolar I disorder and healthy controls, and to reveal the underlying neurocognitive differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery was applied to 18 unipolar mania, 19 bipolar I disorder patients and 21 healthy controls matched for age, sex and education levels. RESULTS: Unipolar mania group had worse performance regarding visual memory and executive functions, and had specific social cognition deficits compared to both bipolar I disorder and healthy control groups. CONCLUSION: The results of our study indicate that unipolar mania might have unique neurocognitive differences compared to bipolar I disorder, which might support the hypothesis that unipolar mania is a distinct neurocognitive disorder within bipolar spectrum disorders.

Are there differences in oxidative stress and inflammatory processes between the autogenous and reactive subtypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder? A controlled cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To date, no study has investigated whether autogenous and reactive obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) types are different entities in terms of oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. The aim of this study is to compare them in terms of these features. METHODS: The study was conducted in subjects with reactive OCD (n=19), autogenous OCD (n=14), and a control group (n=17). All participants were non-smokers. Sociodemographic data were collected and the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ), and Overvalued Ideas Scale (OVIS) were administered. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), paraoxonase (PON1), total oxidant status (TOS), and total antioxidant status (TAS) were measured. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in TAS, TOS, or oxidative stress index (OSI) between the OCD and control groups. PON1 and hs-CRP levels were higher in the OCD group, whereas IL-6 and IL-10 levels were lower. Comparison across the three groups revealed no differences in TAS, TOS, OSI, or PON1 levels; however, hs-CRP was significantly higher while IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly lower in the reactive group compared to controls. CONCLUSION: Our results show that, although inflammatory processes may play a role in OCD, the autogenous and reactive subtypes do not differ from each other in these respects. The classification of OCD into autogenous and reactive subtypes should be reevaluated.

Association of Nicotine Use Disorder with Neurexin 3 Gene Polymorphisms. / Nikotin Kullanim Bozuklugunun Neurexin 3 Gen Polimorfizmi ile Iliskisi.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to investigate the Neurexin 3 gene (NRXN3) polymorphisms in the rs 221473, rs 221497, rs1004212 and rs11624704 regions in relation to nicotine use disorder (NUD) in the Turkish population. METHOD: Power analysis indicated that the NUD group and the control group of this study should each comprise 200 participants in the 18-65 year age range. The NUD group consisted of individuals without a psychiatric first axis disorder except for NUD, mental retardation, past head trauma or a neurological disorder, who had smoked minimally10 cigarettes per day for at least 1 year. The control group included individuals without a serious chronic physical illness, a previous psychiatric disorder or mental retardation and who responded "no" to the question "have you ever smoked?" A sociodemographic questionnaire and the Fageström nicotine dependence scale (FNDS) for the NUD group were utilized. Venous blood samples of all participants were taken into tubes containing EDTA (ethylene daimine tetra acetic acid) for DNA extraction. Duplex fluorescence melting curve analysis was used for genotype detection and differentiation. RESULTS: The individuals carrying the AC allele and the AG allele at the rs11624704 and the rs1004212 regions respectively had a high risk of being addicted to cigarettes. CONCLUSION: This is first study investigating the relationship of the NRXN3 gene and nicotine addiction in the Turkish population. It was observed that the risk of NUD in the Turkish population may be related to the Neurexin gene.

Association of Nicotine Use Disorder with Neurexin 3 Gene Polymorphisms. / Nikotin Kullanim Bozuklugunun Neurexin 3 Gen Polimorfizmi ile Iliskisi.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to investigate the Neurexin 3 gene (NRXN3) polymorphisms in the rs 221473, rs 221497, rs1004212 and rs11624704 regions in relation to nicotine use disorder (NUD) in the Turkish population. METHOD: Power analysis indicated that the NUD group and the control group of this study should each comprise 200 participants in the 18-65 year age range. The NUD group consisted of individuals without a psychiatric first axis disorder except for NUD, mental retardation, past head trauma or a neurological disorder, who had smoked minimally10 cigarettes per day for at least 1 year. The control group included individuals without a serious chronic physical illness, a previous psychiatric disorder or mental retardation and who responded "no" to the question "have you ever smoked?" A sociodemographic questionnaire and the Fageström nicotine dependence scale (FNDS) for the NUD group were utilized. Venous blood samples of all participants were taken into tubes containing EDTA (ethylene daimine tetra acetic acid) for DNA extraction. Duplex fluorescence melting curve analysis was used for genotype detection and differentiation. RESULTS: The individuals carrying the AC allele and the AG allele at the rs11624704 and the rs1004212 regions respectively had a high risk of being addicted to cigarettes. CONCLUSION: This is first study investigating the relationship of the NRXN3 gene and nicotine addiction in the Turkish population. It was observed that the risk of NUD in the Turkish population may be related to the Neurexin gene.

Relationship Between Gonadal Hormone Levels and Symptom Severity in Female Patients With Schizophrenia.

Objective: It is thought that sex-specific differences in schizophrenia may be associated with gonadal hormones, especially estrogen. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin, estradiol, and progesterone serum levels and symptom severity during the menstrual cycle in female patients with schizophrenia. Methods: Serum samples were taken in the follicular and periovulatory phases from 32 female patients with schizophrenia; and FSH, LH, prolactin, estradiol, and progesterone levels were performed. Simultaneously, the patients were administered positive and negative symptom scale (PANSS), Calgary depression scale for schizophrenia (CDSS), and Hamilton anxiety rating scale (HAM-A). Results: PANSS (z = -2.52, P < .001), HAM-A (z = -3.60, P < .001), and CDSS (z = -2.52, P = .012) scores were lower in the periovulatory phase than in the follicular phase. Negative correlations between FSH and PANSS positive symptom subscale (r = -0.393, P = .035), and between prolactin and PANSS total score (r = -0.406, P = .029) were detected. Conclusion: Hypoestrogenism should be studied more in patients with schizophrenia. Studies with large samples evaluating FSH, LH, prolactin, and progesterone together with estrogen are needed to be able to safely use gonadal hormones, which may be related to schizophrenia symptom severity, especially in patients who do not respond adequately to treatment.

The role of cognitive functions in the diagnosis of bipolar disorder: A machine learning model.

BACKGROUND: Considering the clinical heterogeneity of the bipolar disorder, difficulties are encountered in making the correct diagnosis. Although a number of common findings have been found in studies on the neurocognitive profile of bipolar disorder, the search for a neurocognitive endophenotype has failed. The aim of this study is to separate bipolar disorder patients from healthy controls with higher accuracy by using a broader neurocognitive evaluation and a novel machine-learning algorithm. METHODS: Individuals who presented to the Bipolar Outpatient Clinic of the Medical Faculty of Eskisehir Osmangazi University and met the inclusion criteria of the research are included in the study. Six neurocognitive tests from the CANTAB test battery were used for neurocognitive evaluation, Polyhedral Conic Functions algorithm was used to classify the participants. RESULTS: Bipolar disorder patients differentiated from healthy controls with an accuracy of 78 %. DISCUSSION: Our study presents a prediction algorithm that separates bipolar disorder from healthy controls with high accuracy by using CANTAB neurocognitive battery.

Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Deficit Schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: Differences in parameters related to inflammatory and oxidative stress in deficit (DS) and nondeficit schizophrenia (non-DS) may support the DS/non-DS categorization of schizophrenia. For DS patients, non-DS patients, and for healthy controls, this study aims to evaluate the serum levels of: proinflammatory cytokines of interleukin (IL) 1ß, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, Interferon (IFN) γ, IL-12, and IL-17; anti-inflammatory cytokines of IL-10, IFN-α, and transforming growth factor (TGF) ß; and antioxidant biomarkers of paraoxonase1 (PON1) and Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAOC). METHOD: Serum IL-1ß, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-17, IL-10, IFN-α, TGF-ß, PON1 and TAOC levels were measured and performed in DS (n=26), non-DS (n=28), and healthy control (n=28) groups. RESULTS: Patients in the DS group had higher IL-17 levels than the non-DS group did. TGF-ß values for both patient groups were significantly higher than those of the controls. PON1 and TAOC values for both patient groups were significantly lower than those of the controls. CONCLUSION: Our findings may be evidence for the consideration that DS reflects a coherent entity within schizophrenia. Increased levels of IL-17 from pro-inflammatory cytokines may be related with DS.

The relationship between separation anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty in pregnant women.

Background and aim: Pregnancy is a risky period to develop Adult Separation Anxiety Disorder (ASAD). The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency of separation anxiety in pregnant women, and the relationship of separation anxiety with sociodemographic variables and intolerance of uncertainty.Methods: This study included 310 pregnant women and used the Adult Separation Anxiety Questionnaire (ASAQ) and Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale-Short Form (IUS-12).Results: The average age in pregnant women with ASAD was lower. IUS-12 total score, prospective anxiety, and inhibitory anxiety subscale scores were significantly higher in the ASAD group. There were moderate and statistically significant positive correlations between the ASAD score and the IUS-12 total, prospective anxiety and inhibitory anxiety subscale scores.Conclusion: Intolerance of uncertainty may be an important factor in the mental processes of individuals with separation anxiety. Pregnancy period can be a risky period for developing ASAD. Cognitive behavioral treatments including intolerance of uncertainty may be effective in the treatment of ASAD. There is a need for follow-up studies on the effects of separation anxiety during pregnancy on maternal-fetal health.

[The Effect of Chronic Cigarette Use on Cognitive Function]. / Kronik Sigara Kullaniminin Bilissel Islevler Üzerine Etkisi.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of chronic cigarette smoking on the cognitive function in people who have no other mental or physical illness other than tobacco use disorder. METHOD: The study was carried out on three groups: smokers (n = 71), former smokers (n = 39), and non-smokers (n = 49). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Stroop Color and Word Test (ST), Trail Making Test (TMT), Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT), and Serial Digit Learning Test (SDLT) were applied to the 3 groups participating in the study. Groups were compared with the Three-Factor Covariance Analysis. RESULTS: Stroop test 4th card time score which determined the basic level of color discourse in the smoker group was significantly higher than the non-smoker group. The Trail Making Test-B time scores were significantly higher in the smoker group than the non-smoker group. And Trail Making Test-B time points were significantly higher in the former smoker group than nonsmoker group. Auditory Verbal Learning Test - verbal learning scores were lower in the smoker group than the non-smoker and former smoker group. There was no significant difference in verbal learning scores between the non-smoking and former smoker groups. The neurocognitive deficits in smokers appear to be related to dose and duration. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that auditory verbal memory, visualspatial processing, and attention areas may be a selective area of disability in smokers. A major limitation is the fact that general cognitive performance levels of participants was not assessed by a general criteria such as Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

The Relationship Between Obsessive Belief Level and Cognitive Flexibility in Patients with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.

INTRODUCTION: It is known that dysfunctional beliefs are important in the onset and maintenance of symptoms of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) according to the cognitive model of OCD. OCD patients with higher obsessive beliefs would be expected to have greater deficits in cognitive flexibility. In this study, we aimed to examine the relationship between obsessive belief levels and cognitive flexibility in OCD patients. METHODS: Patients with OCD (50) and Panic Disorder (30) as a control group were evaluated and diagnosed using Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders. A socio-demographic data form, Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were administered to all the patients. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale and Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire-44 (OBQ-44) were administered to the OCD group. The OCD group was divided into two subgroups as higher obsessive beliefs (OCD-H) (n=29) and lower obsessive beliefs (OCD-L) (n=21) according to a cluster analytic approach. RESULTS: When the subgroups were compared according to WCST; the number of completed categories was statistically significantly lower, and the numbers of total errors, perseverative errors and non-perseverative errors were significantly higher in the OCD-H group. CONCLUSION: The results of our study show that cognitive flexibility is impaired in OCD patients with higher obsessive beliefs.

Theory of Mind and Selective Attention, Response Inhibition, Cognitive Flexibility in Patients with Schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: The aims of the current study are to investigate the relationship between selective attention, response inhibition, and cognitive flexibility that are among executive functions and sociocognitive and socioperceptual theory of mind (ToM) functions and also to investigate whether selective attention, response inhibition, and cognitive flexibility are predictive factors for ToM functions in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: Forty-seven patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and a control group consisting of 42 individuals were administered demographic information form, Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST), Stroop test, Eye test, Hinting test. Positive and negative syndrome scale was applied to the schizophrenia group. RESULTS: In comparison to the control group, the schizophrenia group performed significantly worse on Eyes test and Hinting test. Eyes Test score and age, WCST perseverative error scores were significantly negatively correlated; education and WCST categories achieved scores were significantly positively correlated in patients with schizophrenia. Age and cognitive flexibility were found to predict the Eyes test score in patients with schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS: ToM functions that are important in maintaining socioperceptual functioning are closely related with cognitive flexibility, and impairment in cognitive flexibility may predict the ToM functions in patients with schizophrenia.

Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness Measurement by Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, an increasing number of studies have researched retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) changes in neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, our aim was to determine structural RNFL changes in patients with major depressive disorder. METHODS: A total of 30 patients with major depressive disorder and 30 age- and sex-matched controls were recruited. Using optical coherence tomography (OCT), the peripapillary RNFL thickness in major depressive disorder patients and control subjects was measured and compared at each location. RESULTS: Patients with major depressive disorder did not show a statistically significant reduction in overall peripapillary RNFL thickness. CONCLUSION: Our study showed that RNFL thickness is not reduced in major depressive disorder patients and that OCT is not a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring the progression of major depressive disorder. This study suggests that the pathophysiology of unipolar depression is different than in neurodegenerative disorders, pervasive developmental disorders, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder.

The risk factors of possible PTSD in individuals exposed to a suicide attack in Turkey.

The aims of this study were to determine both the rate of possible PTSD in individuals who were exposed to a suicide attack in Ankara, Turkey, and the factors that relate to the elevated risk for PTSD in individuals who survived that suicide attack. The researchers carried out the study with 93 participants who had attended a meeting held in Ankara on October 10, 2015. Participants completed a sociodemographic information form, the Traumatic Stress Symptom Checklist (TSSC), the Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Influence of Perceived Societal Attitudes Questionnaire (IPSAQ). Twenty-three of participants were determined to have possible PTSD (24.7%). Participants who were exposed previously to a suicide attack, who witnessed a life-threatening injury, who had the need for psychological help, and who had suicidal thoughts had significantly higher rates of possible PTSD. The IPSAQ, BDI, and TSSC scores were significantly higher in the participants with possible PTSD. The IPSAQ score was found to be related to the development of possible PTSD. This study demonstrated that in participants who had been exposed to a terrorist attack, the negative impact of perceived societal attitudes toward the victims was related to the possible development of PTSD.

[Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonist-Associated Psychotic Disorder: A Case Report]. / Sentetik Kannabinoid Reseptör Agonisti Kullanimina Bagli Psikotik Bozukluk: Olgu Sunumu.

Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRA) has become one of the most abused substances, recently. JWH-018 street name known as Bonzai is one of the most abused substances in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The most common symptoms in cases reported with synthetic cannabis use are agitation, angry, paranoia and reference delusions, disorientation, seizure and nausea. Although the effects are very similar to cannabis, stimulant effects are more likely in SCRA use. In preparations containing SCRA do not contain cannabinidol agent which is reported to reduce the psychotic effects of the cannabis. This may explain the relationship between SCRA and psychotic disorders. We aimed to discuss a brief psychotic disorder associated with SCRA use and treatment which is less reported in the literature in this case report.

[The Relationship between Violence and Clinical Features, Insight and Cognitive Functions in Patients with Schizophrenia]. / Sizofrenide Siddet Davranisinin Klinik Özellikler, Içgörü ve Bilissel Islevler ile Iliskisi.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the predictive factors of violent behavior in schizophrenia and the relationship between violent behavior and insight and cognitive functions in this study. METHOD: 68 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia were separated into two groups; with a history of violent behavior (n = 30) and without (n = 38). Both group swere administered the Positiveand Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, Schedule for Assessing the Three Components of Insight, California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT), Trail Making Test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and Stroop Test. RESULTS: Male gender, the number of hospitalizations, incompliance with the treatment, alcohol and substance abuse, the number of suicide attempts, the mean score of PANSS positive symptoms, PANSS general symptoms and PANSS total were significantly higher in patients with schizophrenia with a history of violent behavior, compared to non-violent group. Long delayed response subsection of CVLT mean score was lower in patients with violent behavior. Incompliance with the treatment (OR:5.927, p=0.041), alcohol and substance abuse (OR:21.089, p=0.000), and PANSS total score (OR:1.053, p=0.011)were identified as predictive factors of violent behavior in patients with schizophrenia. CONCLUSION: Lack of insight and executive function impairment are the core symptoms of schizophrenia and not seems to be associated with violent behavior in patients with schizophrenia. Impairment of memory may be associated with violent behavior in patients with schizophrenia. Incompliance with treatment, alcohol and substance abuse, and the severity of positive symptoms are important factors in predicting violence behavior in patients with schizophrenia.

Executive function in parents of patients with familial versus sporadic bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Studies investigating the cognitive function of healthy relatives of patients with bipolar disorder are conflicting, and the neurocognitive profile of relatives of bipolar disorder probands is still unclear. We aimed to evaluate executive function in unaffected parents of familial and sporadic patients with bipolar disorder. METHODS: The study included 24 unaffected familial parents (FP) of patients with bipolar disorder, 26 unaffected sporadic parents (SP) of patients with bipolar disorder and 26 controls matched with the parents for gender, age and duration of education (76 subjects in total). All of the subjects were interviewed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Axis I. Executive function was assessed using the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT), the Trail Making Test (TMT), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and the Stroop test. RESULTS: In comparison to their respective matched controls, FP performed significantly worse on the CVLT, TMT, WCST and Stroop test, whereas SP performed significantly worse only on WCST perseverative errors and Stroop color test. FP performed significantly worse than SP on the CVLT, TMT, and WCST. CONCLUSION: The present study investigated relatives with and without a family history of bipolar disorder separately and found that executive function was impaired in parents with a positive family history of bipolar disorder. These findings bring more evidence suggesting that deficits in prefrontal executive function and verbal memory are associated with familial vulnerability to bipolar disorder and that executive function and verbal memory impairments may represent a potential endophenotype of bipolar disorder.