Perceived neighbourhood collective efficacy and adolescent health determinants: Investigating outdoor play as a mediator.

PURPOSE: Research demonstrates that play is promotive of health and development in children across multiple domains. Outdoor play may be especially beneficial as environmental elements are conducive to recreation and relaxation. Maternal perception of neighbourhood collective efficacy (NCE), or sense of cohesion among residents, may be a form of social capital especially effective in promoting outdoor play, and thus healthy development. Yet little research has examined the long-term benefits of play beyond childhood. METHODS: We utilized longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4441) to evaluate outdoor play during middle childhood as a mediator between perceived NCE in early childhood and adolescent health determinants. Maternal self-reported perceived NCE at age 5, children's outdoor play was assessed at age 9 and adolescents' self-reported height, weight, physical activity and depressive and anxiety symptoms at age 15. RESULTS: Total play served as mediator between NCE and later adolescent health determinants. Perceived NCE in early childhood (age 5) significantly predicted more total play in middle childhood (age 9), which in turn predicted more physical activity and lower anxiety symptoms in adolescence (age 15). CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with a developmental cascades approach, maternal perceptions of NCE shaped children's engagement in outdoor play that may serve as a foundation for later emerging health behaviours.

The protective role of parental vigilance in the link between risky childhood environments and health.

Growing up in a risky environment is associated with poor lifespan physical and mental health. However, promotive factors that have protective or compensatory effects (i.e., buffer against negative outcomes or promote positive ones in the context of risk) allow individuals to remain healthy despite adverse upbringings. Parental vigilance, including parents' efforts to set boundaries and limitations and/or monitor and have knowledge of children's daily lives, has been shown to buffer and protect against negative health outcomes among individuals who grow up in risky environments. Conversely, some aspects of parental vigilance have been shown to be maladaptive for, or unrelated to, health among individuals who are raised in low-risk environments. The current study leveraged longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 97 (NLSY97; https://www.nlsinfo.org/content/cohorts/nlsy97) to explore the link between environmental risk in adolescence and indices of physical and mental health in young adulthood, and whether parental vigilance (limit-setting and knowledge) buffered these associations (n = 4829). Results indicated that childhood environmental risk predicted a greater likelihood of experiencing physical health limitations at age 29 but was not significantly associated with mental health symptoms at approximately age 34. Further, there was evidence that parental limit-setting (but not knowledge) buffered the relation between childhood risk and physical health limitations, such that the association between risk and physical limitations became slightly less pronounced at greater levels of parental limit-setting. Additionally, maternal knowledge was associated with fewer mental health symptoms in young adulthood among all participants. Results highlight the importance of parental limit-setting in reducing physical health consequences associated with childhood risk and suggest that there may be long-term mental health benefits of maternal knowledge of adolescents, regardless of childhood risk exposure.

Social integration buffers the impact of financial distress on coparenting.

The authors of this study examined how families may pull upon their shared social networks to generate positive relationship dynamics in the midst of financial distress. Prior research regarding the relevance of social integration to the associations between financial distress and the coparenting relationship have produced mixed and limited results. This study explores how each partner's belief that the couple is integrated within a supportive social network interacts with the strain of financial hardship to influence the coparenting relationship. The authors test whether social integration constitutes a capability for bonadaptation. Data for the present study were collected from 247 couples referred to a community-based, relationship enrichment program who were parents (or pregnant) and had received supportive social services within the last year. The authors estimated an actor-partner interdependence model examining the association between financial distress and each participant's report of their partner's supportive coparenting, as well as the moderating effects of perceived social integration upon this association. The association between financial distress (from either partner) and maternal reports of paternal coparenting support were buffered by mothers' perception of couple social integration. Fathers' perceptions of social integration buffered the association between maternal financial distress and his perception of his partner's coparenting support. The findings highlight the critical role of external support systems (e.g., friends and family) in buffering the effects of financial distress on the coparenting relationship for a diverse, low-income population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of family cohesion on self-regulation and anxiety problems among African American emerging adults.

Although African Americans have lower rates of anxiety in childhood than other racial and ethnic minority groups, they seem to experience escalating rates during emerging adulthood. Despite this, few studies have examined factors associated with anxiety during emerging adulthood among African American populations. The current study investigated the extent to which late adolescent family relationships affect anxiety problems among African American emerging adults. Informed by family development theory, family cohesion was hypothesized to indirectly effect anxiety problems through self-regulation. This model was tested with three waves of data (ages 17, 19, 21) from African Americans participating in the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study. Study findings were consistent with the hypothesized model: family cohesion forecasted decreased anxiety problems, indirectly, via increased self-regulation. This finding suggests that families may be an important promotive process for anxiety problems during emerging adulthood. Prevention programs that target family processes may be able to reduce anxiety problems in emerging adult African Americans.

Firm parenting and youth adjustment: Stress reactivity and dyadic synchrony of respiratory sinus arrhythmia.

Parental behaviors are potent risk and protective factors for youth development of externalizing problems. Firm control is a parenting strategy that is inconsistently linked to youth adjustment, possibly due to variations in individual biological contexts. Growing research shows that dyadic coregulation of the autonomic nervous system (e.g., parent-child physiological synchrony) is a neurobiological mechanism that links parenting to youth adjustment. However, physiological synchrony may be context-dependent (e.g., adaptive in positive interactions, maladaptive in negative interactions). We aimed to test the role of dyadic synchrony in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) during parent-child conflict as a mediator between parent firm control and youth's externalizing problems. To capture youth's stress reactivity, we also tested how galvanic skin response reactivity (GSR-R) moderated this indirect path. The sample included 101 dyads of low socioeconomic-status at-risk preadolescents and parents. Results indicated that youth higher levels of GSR-R significantly intensified the link between parent firm control and dyadic RSA synchrony during conflict. Dyadic RSA synchrony further predicted youth increased in externalizing problems. Overall, results suggest that when parents employ firm control parenting with highly reactive teens, dyadic RSA synchrony elevates, potentially modeling less optimal coping with conflict for the youth, which is associated with increased externalizing problems.

Early Puberty and Telomere Length in Preadolescent Girls and Mothers.

OBJECTIVE: To test the association between early puberty and telomere length in preadolescent girls and mothers from a large representative sample of US females. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed data from 1194 preadolescent girls and 2421 mothers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Participants were from a population-based birth cohort (1998-2000) born in large US cities. Telomere length was assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction from saliva samples provided by preadolescent girls and mothers of preadolescent youth. Mothers completed a questionnaire about their child's pubertal development to determine concurrent Tanner stages and provided self-reports of her own age at menarche. Linear regression models were used to estimate the association between pubertal development (status and timing) and telomere length. RESULTS: Early pubertal timing but not pubertal status was associated with shorter telomere length in preadolescent girls (P < .01). Early age at menarche was associated with shorter telomere length in a sample of mothers of preadolescent youth (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Results provide evidence for the association between early puberty and shorter telomeres evidenced by associations in both preadolescent girls and mothers. Future research should address the limitations of this study by using longitudinal measurements of pubertal development assessed through medical examinations and repeated assessments of telomere length to capture telomere attrition.

Cortisol and Parenting Predict Pathways to Disinhibited Social Engagement and Social Functioning in Previously Institutionalized Children.

Previously institutionalized children on average show persistent deficits in physiological and behavioral regulation, as well as a lack of normative reticence towards strangers, or disinhibited social engagement (DSE). Post-adoption parenting, specifically a combination of supportive presence and structure/limit-setting, may protect against DSE over time via better adrenocortical functioning. This study examined the impact of adrenocortical activity and post-adoption parenting on DSE across the first two years post-adoption (age at adoption: 16-36 months) and observed kindergarten social outcomes in previously institutionalized children (n = 94) compared to non-adopted children (n = 52). Path analyses indicated a developmental cascade from institutional care (operationalized as a dichotomous group variable, age at adoption, and months of institutionalization) to blunted adrenocortical activity, increased DSE, and lower kindergarten social competence. Consistent with a permissive parenting style, higher parental support was associated with increased DSE, but only when not accompanied by effective structure/limit-setting. Further, parental structure reduced the association between blunted adrenocortical activity and DSE behaviors.

Early adversity and children's regulatory deficits: Does postadoption parenting facilitate recovery in postinstitutionalized children?

Children reared in orphanages typically experience the lack of stable, reliable caregivers and are at increased risk for deficits in regulatory abilities including difficulties in inhibitory control, attention, and emotion regulation. Although adoption results in a radical shift in caregiving quality, there remains variation in postadoption parenting, yet little research has examined postadoption parenting that may promote recovery in children experiencing early life adversity in the form of institutional care. Participants included 93 postinstitutionalized children adopted between 15 and 36 months of age and 52 nonadopted same-aged peers. Parenting was assessed four times during the first 2 years postadoption (at 2, 8, 16, and 24 months postadoption) and children's regulation was assessed at age 5 (M age = 61.68 months) and during kindergarten (M age = 71.55 months). Multiple parenting dimensions including sensitivity/responsiveness, structure/limit setting, and consistency in routines were examined. Both parental sensitivity and structure moderated the effect of preadoption adversity on children's emotion regulation while greater consistency was associated with better inhibitory control and fewer attention problems. Results support the notion that postadoption parenting during toddlerhood and the early preschool years promotes better regulation skills following early adversity.

Understanding the Neurobiological Implications of Maltreatment: A Commentary on the Special Issue.

A large body of evidence demonstrates the deleterious effects of childhood maltreatment that span across multiple levels of functioning and throughout development. This commentary highlights the important research in this special issue of Child Maltreatment that advances our understanding of the neural and physiological implications of maltreatment. Throughout, the commentary calls attention to critical issues in the study of maltreatment and neurobiological processes for future work in this area.

Harsh Parenting and Serotonin Transporter and BDNF Val66Met Polymorphisms as Predictors of Adolescent Depressive Symptoms.

Depressive symptoms are prevalent and rise during adolescence. The present study is a prospective investigation of environmental and genetic factors that contribute to the growth in depressive symptoms and the frequency of heightened symptoms during adolescence. Participants included 206 mother-father-adolescent triads (M age at Time 1 = 13.06 years, SD = .51, 52% female). Harsh parenting was observationally assessed during a family conflict paradigm. DNA was extracted from saliva samples and genotyped for the 5-HTTLPR and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms. Adolescents provide self-reports of depressive symptoms annually across early adolescence. The results reveal Gene × Environment interactions as predictors of adolescent depressive symptom trajectories in the context of harsh parenting as an environmental risk factor. A BDNF Val66Met × Harsh Parenting interaction predicted the rise in depressive symptoms across a 3-year period, whereas a 5-HTTLPR × Harsh Parenting interaction predicted greater frequency in elevated depressive symptoms. The findings highlight the importance of unique genetic and environmental influences in the development and course of heightened depressive symptoms during adolescence.

Annual Research Review: Early adversity, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, and child psychopathology.

BACKGROUND: Research on early adversity, stress biology, and child development has grown exponentially in recent years. FINDINGS: We review the current evidence for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis as a stress-mediating mechanism between various forms of childhood adversity and psychopathology. We begin with a review of the neurobiology of the axis and evidence for relations between early adversity-HPA axis activity and HPA axis activity-psychopathology, as well as discuss the role of regulatory mechanisms and sensitive periods in development. CONCLUSIONS: We call attention to critical gaps in the literature to highlight next steps in this research including focus on developmental timing, sex differences, stress buffering, and epigenetic regulation. A better understanding of individual differences in the adversity-HPA axis-psychopathology associations will require continued work addressing how multiple biological and behavioral systems work in concert to shape development.

Patterns of Adolescent Regulatory Responses During Family Conflict and Mental Health Trajectories.

Four distinct patterns of adolescents' behavioral, emotional, and physiological responses to family conflict were identified during mother-father-adolescent (M = 13.08 years) interactions. Most youth displayed adaptively regulated patterns comprised of low overt and subjective distress. Under-controlled adolescents exhibited elevated observable and subjective anger. Over-controlled adolescents were withdrawn and reported heightened subjective distress. Physiologically reactive adolescents had elevated cortisol coupled with low overt and subjective distress. Regulation patterns were associated with unique mental health trajectories. Under-controlled adolescents had elevated conduct and peer problems whereas over-controlled adolescents had higher anxiety and depressive symptoms. Physiologically reactive adolescents had low concurrent, but increasing levels of depressive, anxiety, and peer problem symptoms. Findings underscore the importance of examining organizations of regulatory strategies in contributing to adolescent mental health.

Bidirectional effects of parenting and child behavior in internationally adopting families.

Adoption marks a radical transition in caregiving for thousands of children adopted internationally from institutional care; however, very little is known about the quality of this parenting compared with other populations or the transactional effects of parent and child characteristics in postadoption families during the transition to family care. The current study examined parental sensitivity/responsiveness and structure/limit-setting in a group of 68 children adopted internationally from institutions (41 girls, 27 boys; M age = 26.13 months, SD = 4.99) and their parents over the first year after adoption and compared them to a sample of nonadoptive families (26 girls, 26 boys; M age = 27.65 months, SD = 5.71). Results indicated no mean-level differences in parenting quality on either dimension between adoptive and nonadoptive parents. For postinstitutionalized youth, higher quality parental structure and limit-setting soon after adoption predicted reduced child regulation difficulties 8 months later; however, initial child regulation did not predict later parenting. There were no cross-lagged relations for parental sensitivity/responsiveness. Higher quality preadoptive care for children was associated with higher scores on both sensitivity/responsiveness and structure and limit-setting among adoptive parents. Less growth stunting, indicative of less preadoptive adversity, was associated with parents' use of more effective structure and limit-setting behaviors. Policies should promote better preadoptive care abroad, such as lower caregiver-child ratios, as well as early adoption. At least in families exhibiting generally high sensitivity/responsiveness, interventions should target parental structure and limit-setting to have the greatest effect on child behavioral regulation in the immediate years postadoption. (PsycINFO Database Record

ADHD Symptoms in Post-Institutionalized Children Are Partially Mediated by Altered Frontal EEG Asymmetry.

Individual differences in the propensity for left versus right frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry may underlie differences in approach/withdrawal tendencies and mental health deficits. Growing evidence suggests that early life adversity may shape brain development and contribute to the emergence of mental health problems. The present study examined frontal EEG asymmetry (FEA) following the transition to family care in children adopted internationally from institutional care settings between 15 and 36 months of age (N = 82; 46 female, 36 male). Two comparison groups were included: an international adoption control consisting of children adopted from foster care with little to no institutional deprivation (N = 45; 17 female, 28 male) and a post-adoption condition control consisting of children reared in birth families of the same education and income as the adoptive families (N = 48; 23 female, 25 male). Consistent with evidence of greater approach and impulsivity-related behavior problems in post-institutionalized (PI) children, PI status was associated with greater left FEA than found in the other two groups. In addition, left FEA served as a mediator between institutionalization and age 5 ADHD symptoms for girls. Age at adoption and other preadoption factors were examined with results suggesting that earlier adoption into a supportive family resulted in a more typical pattern of brain functioning. Findings support the idea that the capacity of brain activity to evidence typical functioning following perturbation may differ in relation to the timing of intervention and suggest that the earlier the intervention of adoption, the better.

The course of early disinhibited social engagement among post-institutionalized adopted children.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 20% of post-institutionalized (PI) children exhibit disinhibited social engagement (DSE) or the propensity to approach and engage strangers. There is little longitudinal research examining changes in DSE after adoption, or methods of identifying children with persistent behaviors. METHODS: DSE was assessed observationally four times during the first 2 years postadoption in PI children 16-36 months at adoption (n = 68) relative to same-age nonadopted children (n = 52). At age 5, a validated interview determined which PI children met criteria for Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED). RESULTS: DSE trajectories initially increased and then stabilized. PIs had higher DSE levels initially and a steeper increase rate than NAs. When separated into physical and nonphysical DSE components, group differences arose in initial physical DSE and the rate of change of nonphysical DSE. DSE rate of increase predicted DSED diagnosis, as did longer institutional duration and poorer institutional care. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of increase in DSE postadoption, rather than the level observed at adoption, is predictive of disordered social engagement by age 5 years.

Early adversity, hypocortisolism, and behavior problems at school entry: A study of internationally adopted children.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is influenced by early life adversity; however, less is known about the potential for recovery following marked improvements in care. The present study examined longitudinal changes in children's cortisol reactivity in the laboratory (4 assessments over 2 years) after adoption. Post-institutionalized (N=65) and post-foster care children (N=49) demonstrated blunted reactivity relative to non-adopted peers (N=53). Furthermore, post-institutionalized children exhibited no evidence of expected adaptation to repeated sessions in the 2 years following adoption. As evidenced by blunted cortisol reactivity, flatter diurnal slope, and lower home morning cortisol, we found support for hypocortisolism among children experiencing adverse early care. Hypocortisolism served as a mediator between adversity and teacher-reported attention and externalizing problems during kindergarten. Early adversity appears to contribute to the down-regulation of the HPA axis under both basal and stress conditions.

Early deprivation and autonomic nervous system functioning in post-institutionalized children.

The relations between early deprivation and the development of the neuroendocrine and central components of the mammalian stress response have been examined frequently. However, little is known about the impact of early deprivation on the developmental trajectories of autonomic function. Children adopted between 15-36 months from institutional care were examined during their first 16 months post-adoption (N = 60). Comparison groups included same-aged peers reared in their birth families (N = 50) and children adopted internationally from overseas foster care (N = 46). The present study examined trajectories of baseline autonomic nervous system function longitudinally following entry into adopted families. Post-institutionalized children had higher sympathetic tone, measured by pre-ejection period (PEP). Individual differences in PEP soon after adoption served as a mediator between early deprivation and parent-reported behavioral problems 2 years post-adoption. There were no group differences in parasympathetic function, indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia. All three groups showed similar trajectories of ANS function across the 16 month period.

Early Life Stress: Effects on the Regulation of Anxiety Expression in Children and Adolescents.

This study examined children's (N = 79; 9-10 years) and adolescents' (N = 82; 15-16 years) ability to regulate their emotion expressions of anxiety as they completed a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C). Approximately half in each age group were internationally adopted from institutional care (N = 79) and half were non-adopted, age-matched peers (N = 82). Institutional care was viewed as a form of early life stress. Coders who were reliable and blind to group status watched videos of the session to assess anxiety expressions using the Child and Adolescent Stress and Emotion Scale developed for this study. Children exhibited more expressions of anxiety than adolescents, and youth adopted from institutions showed more expressions of anxiety than their non-adopted counterparts. The role of early life stress on observed anxiety expressions remained significant after controlling for differences in age, physiological stress responses measured through salivary cortisol reactivity, and self-reports of stress during the TSST-C. This suggests possible deficits in the regulation of expressive behavior for youth with early life stress histories, which cannot be explained by experiencing the task as more stressful.

Longitudinal relations between constructive and destructive conflict and couples' sleep.

We examined longitudinal relations between interpartner constructive (negotiation) and destructive (psychological and physical aggression) conflict strategies and couples' sleep over 1 year. Toward explicating processes of effects, we assessed the intervening role of internalizing symptoms in associations between conflict tactics and couples' sleep. Participants were 135 cohabiting couples (M age = 37 years for women and 39 years for men). The sample included a large representation of couples exposed to economic adversity. Further, 68% were European American and the remainder were primarily African American. At Time 1 (T1), couples reported on their conflict and their mental health (depression, anxiety). At T1 and Time 2, sleep was examined objectively with actigraphs for 7 nights. Three sleep parameters were derived: efficiency, minutes, and latency. Actor-partner interdependence models indicated that husbands' use of constructive conflict forecasted increases in their own sleep efficiency as well as their own and their wives' sleep duration over time. Actor and partner effects emerged, and husbands' and wives' use of destructive conflict strategies generally predicted worsening of some sleep parameters over time. Several mediation and intervening effects were observed for destructive conflict strategies. Some of these relations reveal that destructive conflict is associated with internalizing symptoms, which in turn are associated with some sleep parameters longitudinally. These findings build on a small, albeit growing, literature linking sleep with marital functioning, and illustrate that consideration of relationship processes including constructive conflict holds promise for gaining a better understanding of factors that influence the sleep of men and women.

FKBP5 moderation of depressive symptoms in peer victimized, post-institutionalized children.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether FKBP5 rs1360780 moderates relations between different forms of life stress/adversity (early institutional rearing and peer victimization) and depressive symptoms in adolescents. As reported previously, PI youth were at risk for being victimized by peers. Here, victimization was associated with elevated depressive symptoms. While FKBP5 did not moderate the association between early life adversity and depressive symptoms for either sex, it moderated the association between current adversity and depressive symptoms for victimized girls carrying the minor allele. Consistent with a differential susceptibility model, girls with the minor allele exhibited more depressive symptoms at higher levels of victimization, but fewer depressive symptoms at lower levels of victimization. Interestingly, boys with the CC genotype had higher rates of depressive symptoms compared to girls with the CC genotype in the context of heightened victimization.