Humoral immune response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines is associated with choice of vaccine and systemic adverse reactions.

Purpose: Although the fast development of safe and effective messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has been a success, waning humoral immunity has led to the recommendation of booster immunization. However, knowledge of the humoral immune response to different booster strategies and the association with adverse reactions is limited. Materials and Methods: We investigated adverse reactions and anti-spike protein immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations among health care workers who received primary immunization with mRNA-1273 and booster immunization with mRNA-1273 or BNT162b2. Results: Adverse reactions were reported by 85.1% after the first dose, 94.7% after the second dose, 87.5% after a third dose of BNT162b2, and 86.0% after a third dose of mRNA-1273. They lasted for a median of 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, and 1.8 days, respectively; 6.4%, 43.6%, and 21.0% of the participants were unable to work after the first, second, and third vaccination, respectively, which should be considered when scheduling vaccinations among essential workers. Booster immunization induced a 13.75-fold (interquartile range, 9.30-24.47) increase of anti-spike protein IgG concentrations with significantly higher concentrations after homologous compared to heterologous vaccination. We found an association between fever, chills, and arthralgia after the second vaccination and anti-spike protein IgG concentrations indicating a linkage between adverse reactions, inflammation, and humoral immune response. Conclusion: Further investigations should focus on the possible advantages of homologous and heterologous booster vaccinations and their capability of stimulating memory B-cells. Additionally, understanding inflammatory processes induced by mRNA vaccines might help to improve reactogenicity while maintaining immunogenicity and efficacy.

Large inter-individual variability of cellular and humoral immunological responses to mRNA-1273 (Moderna) vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 in health care workers.

PURPOSE: Studies on the immune responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccines are necessary to evaluate the ongoing vaccination programs by correlating serological response data and clinical effectiveness data. We performed a longitudinal immunological profiling of health care workers vaccinated with mRNA-1273 (Moderna, Cambridge, MA, USA). Half of these vaccinees had experienced a mild coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection in the spring of 2020 ("COVID-recovered" cohort), whereas the other half of the vaccinees had no previous COVID-19 infection ("COVID-naive" cohort). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Serum was drawn at multiple time points and subjected to assays measuring anti-Spike immunoglobulin G (IgG), avidity of anti-Spike IgG, avidity of anti-receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG, virus neutralizing activity, and interferon-γ release from stimulated lymphocytes. RESULTS: Between both cohorts and within each cohort, we found remarkable inter-individual differences regarding cellular and humoral immune responses to the Moderna mRNA-1273 vaccine. CONCLUSION: First, our study indicates that the success of mRNA-1273 vaccinations should be verified by serological assays in order to identify "low-responders" to vaccination. Second, the kinetics of anti-S IgG and neutralizing activity correlate well with clinical effectiveness data, thus explaining incipient protection against infection 2 weeks after the first dose of mRNA-1273 in COVID-naive vaccinees. Third, our IgG-avidity data indicate that this incipient protection is mediated by low-avidity anti-RBD IgG and low-avidity anti-S IgG.

Severity of adverse reactions is associated with T-cell response in mRNA-1273 vaccinated health care workers.

Knowledge about mRNA-1273 elicited T-cell response is limited. We investigated adverse reactions and interferon gamma release by specific T-cells among mRNA-1273 vaccinated health care workers. Seven to 13 weeks after complete vaccination low levels of specific T-cells were detected not correlating with antibody response. Severity of symptoms after first and number of symptoms after second immunization were associated with T-cell response. Assessment of T-cell response in addition to antibody response is crucial because even few specific T-cells could add to protection against infection. Investigation of mRNA-1273 induced inflammatory processes might help improve reactogenicity and immunogenicity.

Two novel SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus neutralization assays are suitable for assessing successful immunization with mRNA-1273.

BACKGROUND: Due to large vaccination efforts with novel vaccines there is an increasing need for laboratory tests assessing successful immunizations with SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Unfortunately classical neutralization assays are laborious, time-consuming and require an adequate biosafety level laboratory. Recently, convenient ELISA-based surrogate neutralization assays (sVNTs) for determination of neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibodies have been developed. STUDY DESIGN: Our study compares the two novel ELISA-based SARS-CoV-2 surrogate neutralization assays "cPass SARS-CoV-2 Surrogate Virus Neutralization Test Kit" (GenScript Biotech, USA) and the "TECO SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Antibody Assay" (TECOmedical, Switzerland) using 93 sera drawn from health care workers (HCVs) 2-3 weeks following the second vaccination with mRNA-1273 and 40 control sera from the pre-SARS-CoV-2 era before 2019. RESULTS: We found a sensitivity of 100% and 91,4% and a specificity of 100% and 100% for the GenScript assay and the TECO assay, respectively. Both sVNTs show a high correlation with anti-S IgG. Moreover, both sVNTs correlate well with each other. CONCLUSIONS: Surrogate neutralization assays based on the RBD as bait feature a high specificity and sensitivity for identifying humoral neutralizing activity in individuals vaccinated with the spike-based vaccine mRNA-1273. Although these assays appear well-suited for confirming successful vaccinations with spike-based vaccines, additional studies should compare both assays regarding other purposes such as screening COVID-recovered patients or individuals vaccinated with inactivated whole virus vaccines.

Evaluation of the QuantiFERON SARS-CoV-2 interferon-É£ release assay in mRNA-1273 vaccinated health care workers.

Current studies focus on cellular and humoral immunity induced by novel SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Non-responders to vaccinations are not uncommonly encountered in clinical medicine (e.g. in the field of hepatitis B). Whereas vaccine-induced humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 is compromised by emerging Variants of Concern (VOCs), cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 is emerging as resilient against VOCs. Thus commercially available test kits for diagnostic laboratories designed to evaluate cellular immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 are urgently needed. Here we evaluated the novel QuantiFERON SARS-CoV-2 assay (Qiagen) measuring INF-É£ release induced by two spike-derived peptide pools (Ag1 and Ag2) in a cohort of health care workers vaccinated with the mRNA-1273 vaccine and confirmed humoral response. Our study indicates the usefulness of this novel assay for routine laboratories to evaluate cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 in response to mRNA-1273 vaccination.

Comparison of the SARS-CoV-2 Rapid antigen test to the real star Sars-CoV-2 RT PCR kit.

There is an ongoing need for reliable antigen assays for timely and easy detection of individuals with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Using 75 swabs from patients previously tested positive by SARS-CoV-2 PCR and 75 swabs from patients previously tested negative by SARS-CoV-2 PCR, we investigated the sensitivity and specificity of the SARS-CoV-2 Rapid Antigen Test (Roche). We determined a specificity of 96 %. The assay's sensitivity with samples with a cycle threshold of < 25, 25 - <30, 30 - <35, and> = 35 was 100 %, 95 %, 44.8 % and 22.2 %, respectively. We conclude that sensitivity and specificity of the antigen assay is inferior to the PCR assay. However, the antigen assay may be a quick and easy to perform alternative for differentiation of individuals contagious for SARS-CoV-2 from non-contagious individuals.

Determination of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies with assays from Diasorin, Roche and IDvet.

There is an ongoing need for highly reliable serological assays to detect individuals with past SARS-CoV-2 infection. Using 75 sera from patients tested positive or negative by SARS-CoV-2 PCR, we investigated the sensitivity and specificity of the Liaison SARS-CoV-2 S1/S2 IgG assay (DiaSorin), the Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 assay (Roche), and the ID Screen SARS-CoV-2-N IgG indirect kit (IDVet). We determined a sensitivity of 95.5 %, 95.5 %, and 100 % and a specificity of 90.5 %, 96.2 %, and 92.5 % for the DiaSorin assay, the Roche assay, and the IDVet assay, respectively. We conclude that serologic assays combining very high sensitivity and specificity are still not commercially available for SARS-CoV-2. For maximizing sensitivity and specificity of SARS-CoV-2 serological diagnostics, the combination of two assays may be helpful.

Comparison of four new commercial serologic assays for determination of SARS-CoV-2 IgG.

BACKGROUND: Facing the ongoing pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), there is an urgent need for serological assays identifying individuals with past coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). STUDY DESIGN: Our study is the first to compare four new commercially available assays using 75 sera from patients tested positive or negative by SARS-CoV-2 PCR: the anti SARS-CoV-2 ELISA (IgG) (Euroimmun, Germany), the EDI New Coronavirus COVID-19 IgG ELISA, (Epitope diagnostics (EDI), USA), the recomWell SARS-CoV-2 IgG ELISA (Mikrogen, Germany), and the SARS-CoV-2 Virachip IgG (Viramed, Germany). RESULTS: We found a sensitivity of 86.4 %, 100 %, 86.4 %, and 77.3 % and a specificity of 96,2 %, 88,7 %, 100 %, and 100 % for the Euroimmun assay, the EDI assay, the Mikrogen assay, and the Viramed assay, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Commercially available SARS-CoV-2 IgG assays have a sufficient specificity and sensitivity for identifying individuals with past SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Study on the association of Helicobacter species with viral hepatitis-induced hepatocellular carcinoma.

Helicobacter species are important pathogens and previous studies in mice suggested a link between colonization by Helicobacter hepaticus (H. hepaticus) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This study aimed at corroborating this potential link in human patients. We used a sensitive and specific Helicobacter ssp PCR assay to screen stool samples from a collective of patients with viral-induced HCC (hepatitis B or hepatitis C) and a control group for presence of Helicobacter ssp DNA. Although retrieving DNA of H. pylori and H. canadensis from stool samples of non-HCC patients, we found no evidence indicating the presence of H. hepaticus in HCC-patients with chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C. Interestingly we found H. canadensis in a stool sample of a patient presenting with diarrhea. Taken together, our data argue against a pathogenic role of H. hepaticus in viral-induced HCC. Yet, our results do not exclude a role of H. hepaticus in those HCC cases caused by other carcinogens, such as aflatoxin. Moreover, we speculate that H. canadensis might be a novel gastrointestinal pathogen.

Role for CD74 and CXCR4 in clathrin-dependent endocytosis of the cytokine MIF.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that plays a role in innate and adaptive immunity. Depending on the cellular context and disease state, MIF signaling is mediated by its receptors CXCR2, CXCR4 and/or CD74. Although it is known that MIF is endocytosed, the exact mechanism has remained unknown. In exploring the mechanism of MIF endocytosis with biologically active Alexa(546)MIF, pathway-specific inhibitors (monodansylcadaverine, MDC; chlorpromazine, CPZ; dynasore; dominant-negative dynamin, bafilomycin, nocodazole) and receptor overexpression and blockade approaches, we identified a clathrin/dynamin-dependent endocytosis pathway as the main track for MIF internalization. MIF endocytosis was rapid and colocalization with both early and late endosomal vesicles in a microtubule- and acidification-dependent manner was observed. LDL endocytosis (which is clathrin-mediated) served as a control and was similarly inhibited by MDC or dynasore. When MIF endocytosis was compared to that of transferrin, acetylated LDL, and choleratoxin B (the latter internalized by a clathrin-independent pathway) by colocalization studies, the MIF internalization pathway clearly resembled that of LDL but also shared early trafficking with transferrin, whereas no colocalization with choleratoxin was noted. To identify the receptors involved in MIF endocytosis, we focused on CD74 and CXCR4 which form a heteromeric complex. Ectopic overexpression of CD74 in HEK293 and HeLa cells, which do not endogenously express CD74, led to a marked acceleration of MIF endocytosis while pharmacological blockade of CXCR4, which is endogenously expressed on these cells, with AMD3100 led to a 20% reduction of MIF endocytosis in HEK293-CD74 transfectants, whereas in untransfected cells, a blockade of 40% was observed. Of note, both CD74 and CXCR4 strongly colocalize with Alexa(546)MIF both on the plasma membrane and in endosomal compartments. Moreover, MIF-stimulated AKT signaling, which was previously shown to involve both CD74 and CXCR4, was reduced by endocytosis inhibitors, indicating that MIF signaling is at least in part due to endosomal signaling mechanisms. Thus, MIF uptake follows a rapid LDL-like, clathrin- and dynamin-dependent endocytosis pathway, which is dependent on the receptors CD74 and CXCR4 and leads to the initiation of endosomal signaling responses.

Interleukin-6 in sepsis and capillary leakage syndrome.

Bacterial sepsis is one of the most frequent and dreaded causes of death in intensive care units. According to the current understanding of sepsis, bacterial components activate innate immune responses via pattern-recognition receptors that stimulate signaling pathways, thereby leading to activation of NF-κB and the release of cytokines, alarming the organism and coordinating appropriate defense mechanisms. The resulting "cytokine storm" not only restricts bacterial invasion; it also harms the host by triggering a hemodynamic collapse with a drop in blood pressure, which could lead to death. One of the cytokines released during sepsis is interleukin-6 (IL-6). Originally described as a B-cell-stimulating factor, this cytokine has since been shown to have multiple additional functions. Interestingly, there is emerging evidence of IL-6 trans-signaling in the pathogenesis of sepsis. We review recent findings and discuss whether therapeutic interference with IL-6 trans-signaling may be beneficial in this important clinical scenario.

Real-time PCR assay and a synthetic positive control for the rapid and sensitive detection of the emerging resistance gene New Delhi Metallo-ß-lactamase-1 (bla(NDM-1)).

Carbapenems are important last-line antibiotics for the treatment of hospital infections. Enterobacteriaceae (such as Klebsiella pneumoniae or Escherichia coli) expressing the "New Delhi Metallo-ß-lactamase" gene bla(NDM-1) are resistant to carbapenems and were predicted to become a major global health problem. To cope with this emerging threat, there is a need for rapid and sensitive molecular assays to detect bla(NDM-1) in carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from clinical isolates. In diagnostic laboratories, real-time PCR is the current gold standard for the sensitive and rapid detection of pathogens. We describe a real-time PCR assay as well as two conventional PCR assays to detect bla(NDM-1). Only minute amounts of total DNA extracted from one bacterial colony are sufficient to allow detection of bla(NDM-1) by real-time PCR within less than 1 h. We also introduce a chemically synthesized bla(NDM-1) gene as a convenient positive control for those laboratories wishing to setup in-house assays for bla(NDM-1) detection. Importantly, our study represents a proof of principle for the usefulness of rapidly synthesized genes serving as positive controls for novel diagnostic PCR assays of emerging pathogens during the initial phase after their discovery when biological isolates are still rare and not commonly available.

Differential effects of myopathy-associated caveolin-3 mutants on growth factor signaling.

Caveolin-3 is an important scaffold protein of cholesterol-rich caveolae. Mutations of caveolin-3 cause hereditary myopathies that comprise remarkably different pathologies. Growth factor signaling plays an important role in muscle physiology; it is influenced by caveolins and cholesterol-rich rafts and might thus be affected by caveolin-3 dysfunction. Prompted by the observation of a marked chronic peripheral neuropathy in a patient suffering from rippling muscle disease due to the R26Q caveolin-3 mutation and because TrkA is expressed by neuronal cells and skeletal muscle fibers, we performed a detailed comparative study on the effect of pathogenic caveolin-3 mutants on the signaling and trafficking of the TrkA nerve growth factor receptor and, for comparison, of the epidermal growth factor receptor. We found that the R26Q mutant slightly and the P28L strongly reduced nerve growth factor signaling in TrkA-transfected cells. Surface biotinylation experiments revealed that the R26Q caveolin-3 mutation markedly reduced the internalization of TrkA, whereas the P28L did not. Moreover, P28L expression led to increased, whereas R26Q expression decreased, epidermal growth factor signaling. Taken together, we found differential effects of the R26Q and P28L caveolin-3 mutants on growth factor signaling. Our findings are of clinical interest because they might help explain the remarkable differences in the degree of muscle lesions caused by caveolin-3 mutations and also the co-occurrence of peripheral neuropathy in the R26Q caveolinopathy case presented.

A role of nitric oxide in neurite outgrowth of neuroblastoma cells triggered by mevastatin or serum reduction.

Neuroblastoma cell lines are commonly used as a model to study neuronal differentiation as they retain the capacity to differentiate into a neuronal-like phenotype. It is of great medical interest to understand the signalling pathways biasing differentiation versus proliferation. Neuroblastoma cells differentiate in response to serum reduction or addition of the cholesterol synthesis inhibitor mevastatin. The responsible pathways are not well characterized. In Neuro2a neuroblastoma cells, we found that mevastatin and serum withdrawal triggered the production of nitric oxide (NO). In addition, the differentiation of Neuro2a cells and the activation of Akt/PKB triggered by serum withdrawal could be blocked by addition of the NO synthetase (NOS) inhibitor l-NAME. Moreover, mevastatin and serum withdrawal rapidly increased the expression of the neuronal NOS isoform nNOS. However, addition of an NO donor SNP per se did not trigger neurite outgrowth. Taken together, we report for the first time a role of NO in neurite outgrowth of neuroblastoma cells triggered by mevastatin or serum reduction.

The angiotensin-calcineurin-NFAT pathway mediates stretch-induced up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinases-2/-9 in atrial myocytes.

AIM: During atrial fibrillation, arterial hypertension and systolic or diastolic heart failure, atrial myocytes are exposed to increased baseline stretch. Atrial stretch has been shown to induce cellular hypertrophy and extracellular matrix remodeling (ECM) via angiotensin-II dependent pathways and the matrix metalloproteinases system (MMPs). We hypothesized that atrial myocytes exposed to static stretch may increase their ECM remodeling activity via up-regulation of MMP-2/-9. We then tested the hypothesis that the membrane bound angiotensin-II type 1 (AT1) receptor and the intracellular calcineurin (Cn)-NFAT signaling pathway are potential mediators of stretch-induced MMP alterations, since Cn-NFAT is one important contributor to myocyte hypertrophy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Neonatal rat atrial myocytes (NRAM) were cultured under conditions of static stretch by 21%. The differential effects of selective AT1 receptor blockade by losartan, Cn blockade by Cyclosporine-A (CsA) or NFAT inhibition by 11R-VIVIT (VIV), were analyzed. Stretch resulted in a significant up-regulation of active-MMP-2/-9 protein amount (active-MMP-2 ng/microg: control 8.95 +/- 0.64 vs. stretch 13.11 +/- 0.74 / active-MMP-9 ng/microg: control 1.45 +/- 0.18 vs. stretch 1.94 +/- 0.21, all n = 5) and enzyme activity (MMP-2 in %: control 1 +/- 0.0 vs. stretch 1.87 +/- 0.25, n = 7) associated with a significant increase of the membrane-type-1-MMP (MT1-MMP) protein expression (MT1-MMP in %: control 1 +/- 0.0 vs. stretch 2.17 +/- 0.21, n = 8). These observations were accompanied by an activation of the Cn-NFAT pathway (Cn-activity in nmol PO(4) release/20 microg protein/30 min: control 0.37 +/- 0.08 vs. stretch 0.65 +/- 0.09, n = 3 / NFATc1-DNA binding activity in %: control 1 +/- 0.0 vs. stretch 1.53 +/- 0.17, n = 3). Losartan, CsA or VIV abolished stretch-induced alterations in MMP-2/-9 and MT1-MMP expression and enzyme activity by normalizing the Cn-activity and the DNA binding activity of NFATc1. CONCLUSION: Our results present new insights in molecular mechanisms of ECM remodeling activity of atrial myocytes exposed to static stretch. The AT1-Cn-NFAT pathway is a potential mediator of MMP activation.

Regulation of nerve growth factor in the heart: the role of the calcineurin-NFAT pathway.

A heightened sympathetic tone accelerates the development of lethal arrhythmias after myocardial infarction (MI) and the progression of heart failure (HF). Cardiomyocytes control their local neural milieu by expression of nerve growth factor (NGF), which triggers sympathetic neural growth (sympathetic nerve sprouting: SNS). The molecular mechanisms that regulate NGF expression are largely unknown. During HF or MI the myocytes are exposed to increased mechanical load and adrenergic stimulation. Both stimuli induce myocyte hypertrophy. The angiotensin-II-calcineurin-NFAT (nuclear factor of activated t-cells) pathway is a well characterized signaling cascade in the pathogenesis of myocyte hypertrophy. The present study aims to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which mechanical stretch and/or alpha-1-adrenergic stimulation affect NGF expression in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Both stimuli resulted in a down-regulation of NGF gene and protein expression. Angiotensin-II type 1 receptor blockade with losartan blunted the stretch-induced NGF down-regulation. Specific calcineurin inhibition with cyclosporine A and FK506 or NFAT inhibition with 11R-VIVIT reversed the stretch or alpha-1-adrenergic induced decrease of NGF. Calcineurin over-expression increased NFAT-DNA binding activity and decreased NGF expression. The magnitude of NGF decrease was sufficient to reduce neurite outgrowth of cultured sympathetic neurons. In conclusion, mechanical stretch and alpha-1-adrenergic stimulation contribute to a decrease of cardiomyocyte NGF expression via the calcineurin-NFAT pathway. To evaluate if the calcineurin-NFAT is critically involved in the pathogenesis of SNS further in-vivo studies in models of HF and MI are required. Nevertheless, the calcineurin-NFAT pathway may provide promising starting points for new pharmacological strategies to prevent SNS in the heart.

WU Polyomavirus (WUPyV): A Recently Detected Virus Causing Respiratory Disease?

The WU polyomavirus (WUPyV) is a novel member of the family Polyomaviridae recently detected in respiratory tract specimens by shotgun sequencing. Intriguingly, viral genome has been detected in 0.4% to 11.5% of respiratory tract specimens from children with respiratory disease. The levels of co-infection with established respiratory viruses were in the range between 30.8% and 91.7%. Moreover, some studies report detection of WUPyV in stool or serum. So far, WUPyV infections can not be distinguished from other viral infections by means of clinical symptoms. Respiratory tract disease like pneumonia or bronchitis is frequently observed in patients harbouring WUPyV. Detection of viremia suggests systemic infections. However, the available data do not prove WUPyV to be a human pathogen. Further investigations are necessary.

Peripheral nerve demyelination caused by a mutant Rho GTPase guanine nucleotide exchange factor, frabin/FGD4.

GTPases of the Rho subfamily are widely involved in the myelination of the vertebrate nervous system. Rho GTPase activity is temporally and spatially regulated by a set of specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs). Here, we report that disruption of frabin/FGD4, a GEF for the Rho GTPase cell-division cycle 42 (Cdc42), causes peripheral nerve demyelination in patients with autosomal recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) neuropathy. These data, together with the ability of frabin to induce Cdc42-mediated cell-shape changes in transfected Schwann cells, suggest that Rho GTPase signaling is essential for proper myelination of the peripheral nervous system.

Time of transplantation and cell preparation determine neural stem cell survival in a mouse model of Huntington's disease.

Cell replacement therapies for neurodegenerative diseases, using multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs), require above all, a good survival of the graft. In this study, we unilaterally injected quinolinic acid (QA) into the striatum of adult mice and transplanted syngeneic NSCs of enhanced green fluorescent protein-transgenic mice into the lesioned striatum. The injection of QA leads to an excitotoxic lesion with selective cell death of the medium sized spiny neurons, the same cells that are affected in Huntington's disease. In order to investigate the best timing of transplantation for the survival of donor cells, we transplanted the stem cells at 2, 7 and 14 days after injury. In addition, the influence of graft preparation prior to transplantation, i.e., intact neurospheres versus dissociated cell suspension on graft survival was investigated. By far the best survival was found with the combination of early transplantation (i.e., 2 days after QA-lesion) with the use of neurospheres instead of dissociated cell suspension. This might be due to the different states of host's astrocytic and microglia activation which we found to be moderate at 2, but pronounced at 7 and 14 days after QA-lesion. We also investigated brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-expression in the striatum after QA-lesion and found no significant change in BDNF protein-level. We conclude that already the method of graft preparation of NSCs for transplantation, as well as the timing of the transplantation procedure strongly affects the survival of the donor cells when grafted into the QA-lesioned striatum of adult mice.