NF-κB activation induced by hepatitis A virus and Newcastle disease virus occurs by different pathways depending on the structural pattern of viral nucleic acids.

NF-κB is activated by hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus and is assumed to contribute to viral persistence, leading to the development of hepatocellular cancer by inhibition of apoptosis mediated by cytotoxic T cells. Whether hepatitis A virus (HAV), which does not cause chronic infection, activates NF-κB is a topic of controversy. Here, we confirm that HAV activates NF-κB and show that HAV enhances the activation of NF-κB by poly(I-C), but it inhibits the activation of NF-κB by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), a paramyxovirus. In addition, HAV inhibits NF-κB activation induced by overexpressed MAVS (mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein). We conclude from these findings that NF-κB induction occurs in cells infected with HAV by dsRNA, independently of mitochondrial-transduced RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling, whereas the induction of NF-κB in cells infected by NDV is mediated by RIG-I signaling, independenly of viral dsRNA. This is supported by experiments in which the different RNA inducers of RIG-I and MDA-5 are sequestered and which also show that poly(I-C) and HAV, but not NDV, are functionally equivalent in inducing NF-κB activity. Furthermore, we demonstrate that HAV interferes with the protein kinase R (PKR) activity and PKR activation induced by dsRNA, and that HAV-induced activation of NF-κB therefore does not take place via the PKR-induced pathway. As assumed for hepatitis B and C virus infections, NF-κB activation could attenuate the effects of cytotoxic T cells and may contribute to prolonged as well as relapsing courses of hepatitis A.

The role of immunoglobulin A in prolonged and relapsing hepatitis A virus infections.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections result in different courses of the disease, varying between normal, prolonged and relapsing. However, the reason for these heterogeneous clinical appearances is not understood. As HAV-anti-HAV IgA immunocomplexes (HAV-IgA) infect hepatocytes, IgA was postulated as a carrier supporting hepatotropic transport of HAV, and it was speculated that this carrier mechanism contributes to the various clinical outcomes. In this study, the IgA-carrier mechanism was investigated in a mouse model. We show that HAV-IgA immunocomplexes efficiently reached the liver not only in HAV-seronegative mice, but also, and this is in contrast to free-HAV particles, in immunized HAV-seropositive animals. This IgA-mediated transport of HAV to the liver in the presence of immunity depended on the stage of development of the immune response. We conclude that over a period of several weeks after infection, anti-HAV IgA is able to promote an enterohepatic cycling of HAV, resulting in continuous endogenous reinfections of the liver. Our experiments indicate that highly avid IgG antibodies, which are present at later times of the infection, can terminate the reinfections. However, the endogenous reinfections in the presence of a developing neutralizing immunity might contribute to prolonged as well as to relapsing courses of HAV infections. Furthermore, the results show that serum IgA may act as an infection protracting factor.

Innate and adaptive immune responses against picornaviruses and their counteractions: An overview.

Picornaviruses, small positive-stranded RNA viruses, cause a wide range of diseases which is based on their differential tissue and cell type tropisms. This diversity is reflected by the immune responses, both innate and adaptive, induced after infection, and the subsequent interactions of the viruses with the immune system. The defense mechanisms of the host and the countermeasures of the virus significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of the infections. Important human pathogens are poliovirus, coxsackievirus, human rhinovirus and hepatitis A virus. These viruses are the best-studied members of the family, and in this review we want to present the major aspects of the reciprocal effects between the immune system and these viruses.